Protection against atherogenesis in mice mediated by human apolipoprotein A-IV.

Apolipoproteins are protein constituents of plasma lipid transport particles. Human apolipoprotein A-IV (apoA-IV) was expressed in the liver of C57BL/6 mice and mice deficient in apoE, both of which are prone to atherosclerosis, to investigate whether apoA-IV protects against this disease. In transgenic C57BL/6 mice on an atherogenic diet, the serum concentration of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol increased by 35 percent, whereas the concentration of endogenous apoA-I decreased by 29 percent, relative to those in transgenic mice on a normal diet. Expression of human apoA-IV in apoE-deficient mice on a normal diet resulted in an even more severe atherogenic lipoprotein profile, without affecting the concentration of HDL cholesterol, than that in nontransgenic apoE-deficient mice. However, transgenic mice of both backgrounds showed a substantial reduction in the size of atherosclerotic lesions. Thus, apoA-IV appears to protect against atherosclerosis by a mechanism that does not involve an increase in HDL cholesterol concentration.

Elements responsible for hormonal control and tissue specificity of L-type pyruvate kinase gene expression in transgenic mice.

L-type pyruvate kinase (L-PK) is a key enzyme of the glycolytic pathway specifically expressed in the liver and, to a lesser degree, in the small intestine and kidney. One important characteristic of L-PK gene expression is its strong activation by glucose and insulin and its complete inhibition by fasting or glucagon treatment. Having previously established that the entire rat L-PK gene plus 3.2 kbp of 5'-flanking region functions in mice in a tissue-specific and hormonally regulated manner, various deletions of these 3.2 kbp of 5'-flanking regions were tested in transgenic animals to map the cis-acting elements involved in transcriptional gene regulation. Our experiments indicate that the proximal region between -183 and +11 confers tissue specificity and contains all the information necessary for dietary and hormonal control of L-PK gene expression in vivo. We found, however, that the transcriptional activity generated by this proximal promoter fragment can be modulated by distal sequences in a tissue-specific manner. (i) Sequences between bp -183 and -392 seem to play a dual role in the liver and small intestine; they induce L-PK expression in the liver but repress it in the small intestine. (ii) Sequences from bp -392 up to -1170 do not seem to have any additional effect on promoter activity. (iii) Between bp -1170 and -2080, we found a putative extinguisher whose transcriptional inhibitory effect is much more marked in the small intestine than in the liver. (iv) Finally, between bp -2080 and -3200, we identified an activating sequence required for full expression of the gene in the liver.

Presenilins and Alzheimer's disease: biological functions and pathogenic mechanisms.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly population. Dementia is associated with massive accumulation of fibrillary aggregates in various cortical and subcortical regions of the brain. These aggregates appear intracellularly as neurofibrillary tangles, extracellularly as amyloid plaques and perivascular amyloid in cerebral blood vessels. The causative factors in AD etiology implicate both, genetic and environmental factors. The large majority of early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) cases are linked to mutations in the genes coding for presenilin 1 (PS1) and presenilin 2 (PS2). The corresponding proteins are 467 (PS1) and 448 (PS2) amino-acids long, respectively. Both are membrane proteins with multiple transmembrane regions. Presenilins show a high degree of conservation between species and a presenilin homologue with definite conservation of the hydrophobic structure has been identified even in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. More than 50 missense mutations in PS1 and two missense mutations in PS2 were identified which are causative for FAD. PS mutations lead to the same functional consequence as mutations on amyloid precursor protein (APP), altering the processing of APP towards the release of the more amyloidogenic form 1-42 of Abeta (Abeta42). In this regard, the physical interaction between APP and presenilins in the endoplasmic reticulum has been demonstrated and might play a key role in Abeta42 production. It was hypothesized that PS1 might directly cleave APP. However, extracellular amyloidogenesis and Abeta production might not be the sole factor involved in AD pathology and several lines of evidence support a role of apoptosis in the massive neuronal loss observed. Presenilins were shown to modify the apoptotic response in several cellular systems including primary neuronal cultures. Some evidence is accumulating which points towards the beta-catenin signaling pathways to be causally involved in presenilin mediated cell death. Increased degradation of beta-catenin has been shown in brain of AD patients with PS1 mutations and reduced beta-catenin signaling increased neuronal vulnerability to apoptosis in cell culture models. The study of presenilin physiological functions and the pathological mechanisms underlying their role in pathogenesis clearly advanced our understanding of cellular mechanisms underlying the neuronal cell death and will contribute to the identification of novel drug targets for the treatment of AD.

Stability of the "second stage" promoter 12-O-retinoylphorbol-13-acetate.

To provide guidelines for handling the very labile phorbol ester, RPA,2 its stability under various laboratory conditions was studied. RPA will remain undecomposed for 8 weeks if stock solutions are made in ethanol, ethyl acetate, or DMSO and stored in absolute darkness at -20 degrees C. When exposed to light RPA readily isomerizes to 13'-cis-RPA. Structure/activity investigations of irritant polyfunctional diterpene esters of phorbol, ingenol, and resiniferonol with saturated and unsaturated aliphatic or with aromatic acids indicate that their irritant activity is a necessary, yet insufficient prerequisite for initiation- (or tumor-) promoting activity (e.g., Refs. 3 and 4). For further testing of this hypothesis, the retinoic acid analogue of the mouse skin irritant and initiation-promoter TPA, i.e., RPA, was designed (7). In initiation/promotion experiments of skin of NMRI mice, it proved to be an irritant almost as active as TPA, but only marginally active as a promoter. In combination with TPA, it turned out to be a "second stage" promoter (PII-promoter) (1, 6) in our strain of mice (2, 7). RPA is a much more labile compound than TPA (5), especially in the solid form. If stored in solution, special precautions have to be taken to ascertain that the concentration or dose intended is represented by undecomposed RPA.

A 700-bp fragment of the human antithrombin III promoter is sufficient to confer high, tissue-specific expression on human apolipoprotein A-II in transgenic mice.

The human antithrombin III-encoding gene (hAT-III) promoter (phAT-III) was used to generate transgenic mice producing a human hepatic apolipoprotein, apolipoprotein A-II (hApoA-II). Integration of the transgene into the mouse genome resulted in the efficient production of hApoA-II in plasma, reaching up to 0.40 g/l in two transgenic lines. The human ApoA-II mRNA was detected at high levels, both in the liver and in the kidney of transgenic mice. The rat AT-III gene shows the same expression pattern. In contrast, as previously described, the same promoter permitted the expression of the SV40 large T antigen only in the liver of transgenic mice. In view of the extra-hepatic distribution of the ApoA-II mRNA, a preliminary characterization of the hAT-III proximal promoter (phAT-III), driving the expression of the transgene, was realized. Using DNase I footprinting analysis with liver nuclear extracts, four protected regions (I-IV) were identified in the first 175 bp of the 5' region of hAT-III. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays performed with liver and kidney nuclear extracts indicate that region III (nucleotides (nt) -67 to -90) interacts with the liver-enriched HNF4 nuclear factor. Furthermore, our data suggest that region I (nt -123 to -138) interacts with the liver-enriched HNF3 transcription factor family, both in liver and kidney. Taken together, these results demonstrate that phAT-III is a useful tool to create transgenic mice producing high plasma levels of a human apolipoprotein due to expression of the transgene in liver and kidney.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Neurofibrillary tangles and tau phosphorylation.

Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) are a characteristic neuropathological lesion of Alzheimer's disease (AD). They are composed of a highly-phosphorylated form of the microtubule-associated protein tau. We are investigating the relationship between NFTs and microtubule stability and how tau phosphorylation and function is affected in transgenic models and by co-expression with beta-amyloid precursor protein and presenilins. In most NFT-bearing neurons, we observed a strong reduction in acetylated alpha-tubulin immunoreactivity (a marker of stable microtubules) and a reduction of the in situ hybridization signal for tubulin mRNA. In transfected cells, mutated tau forms (corresponding to tau mutations identified in familial forms of frontotemporal dementias linked to chromosome 17) were less efficient in their ability to sustain microtubule growth. These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that destabilization of the microtubule network is an important mechanism of cell dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. The glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3 beta) generates many phosphorylated sites on tau. We performed a neuroanatomical study of GSK-3 beta distribution showing that developmental evolution of GSK-3 beta compartmentalization in neurons paralleled that of phosphorylated tau. Studies on transfected cells and on cultured neurons showed that GSK-3 beta activity controls tau phosphorylation and tau functional interaction with microtubules. Tau phosphorylation was not affected in neurons overexpressing beta-amyloid precursor protein. Transgenic mice expressing a human tau isoform and double transgenic animals for tau and mutated presenilin 1 have been generated; a somatodendritic accumulation of phosphorylated transgenic tau proteins, as observed in the pretangle stage in AD, has been observed but NFTs were not found, suggesting that additional factors might be necessary to induce their formation.

Characterization of human presenilin 1 transgenic rats: increased sensitivity to apoptosis in primary neuronal cultures.

Mutations in the gene for presenilin 1 are causative for the majority of cases of early onset familial Alzheimer's disease. Yet, the physiological function of presenilin 1 and the pathological mechanisms of the mutations leading to Alzheimer's disease are still unknown. To analyse potential pathological effects of presenilin 1 over-expression, we have generated transgenic rats which express high levels of human presenilin 1 protein in the brain. The over-expression of presenilin 1 leads to saturation of its normal processing and to the appearance of full-length protein in the transgenic rat brain. The transgenic protein is expressed throughout the brain and is predominantly found in neuronal cells. Cultured primary cortical neurons derived from these transgenic rats are significantly more sensitive than non-transgenic controls to apoptosis induced by standard culture conditions and to apoptosis induced by trophic factor withdrawal. Furthermore, the observed apoptosis is directly correlated with the expression of the transgenic protein. The results further emphasize the role of presenilin 1 in apoptotic cell death in native neuronal cultures.

Proteolytical processing of mutated human amyloid precursor protein in transgenic mice.

The evidence that betaA4 is central to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) came from the identification of several missense mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene co-segregating with familial AD (FAD). In an attempt to study the proteolytical processing of mutated human APP in vivo, we have created transgenic mice expressing the human APP695 isoform with four FAD-linked mutations. Expression of the transgene was controlled by the promoter of the HMG-CR gene. Human APP is expressed in the brain of transgenic mice as shown by Western blot and immunohistology. The proteolytic processing of human APP in the transgenic mice leads to the generation of C-terminal APP fragments as well as to the release of betaA4. Despite substantial amounts of betaA4 detected in the brain of the transgenic mice, neither signs of Alzheimer's disease-related pathology nor related behavioural deficits could be demonstrated.

Toxicodynamics of tumour promoters of mouse skin. II. Binding to protein kinase C of some new diterpene esters and induction of luminol-enhanced chemoluminescence in mouse peritoneal neutrophils.

In binding competition assays using a protein kinase C preparation from mouse brain (particulate fraction) 3H-labelled 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), for a series of new diterpene esters (DTE) the relative binding affinity [rba = Kia(TPA)/Kia(DTE)] in relation to TPA was determined. A wide range of values was noticed, some of the DTE binding more strongly than TPA (rba greater than 1), others binding less strongly than TPA (rba less than 1) In comparative terms, competition for specific binding sites appears to correlate better with irritant than with promoting activity of the DTE. Using mouse peritoneal neutrophils, binding of [3H]-TPA was determined by a modification of the "cold-acetone filter assay"; saturation of high-affinity sites (Kda = 0.2 nM) was obtained at concentrations less than or equal to 1 nM, but there was also evidence for specific binding at "low-affinity" sites (Kda = 26 nM). Induction of chemoluminescence in the presence of luminol in mouse peritoneal neutrophils with a set of DTE usually elecited two peaks; at concentrations greater than or equal to 10 nM DTE a short-lived, "spike-like" response lasting only from 0 to about 5 min (phase A) its followed by a "plateau" response from about 5-120 min (phase B). This latter phase of chemoluminescence stimulation with luminol correlated well with the irritant potential of the DTE used. The sequence of the two phases can be inverted partially by using first TPA at 2,5 nM followed by a quick concentration increase to 100 nM; this indicates two different concentration-dependent events. As regards the intensity of the chemoluminescent response, quantitative but not qualitative differences between DTE were observed, which show some correlation with strong and weak tumour-promoting activity. Inhibition studies suggest the involvement of the myeloperoxidase/H2O2/Cl- system in the luminogenic response; it is suggested that the release of hypochlorite or a closely related oxidant may be instrumental in tumour promotion.

Increased tau phosphorylation but absence of formation of neurofibrillary tangles in mice double transgenic for human tau and Alzheimer mutant (M146L) presenilin-1.

Neurofibrillary tangles, composed of tau proteins, are a key lesion observed in sporadic forms of Alzheimer's disease and in familial forms associated with mutations of presenilin-1 (PS1). We have generated a double transgenic mouse line expressing a human tau isoform and a mutated form of PS1 (M146L) in neurons. Increased expression of the PS1 holoprotein was observed in the tau/PS1 transgenic mice and the proteolytic fragments of PS1 did not appear to be modified. A somatodendritic accumulation of the transgenic tau and an increase in tau phosphorylation were observed in both tau- and tau/PS1 transgenic mice. Neurofibrillary tangles were not observed in animals analyzed up to 17 months. Immunoprecipitation of tau from brain homogenates demonstrated its binding with active glycogen synthase kinase-3beta in control, tau- and tau/PS1 transgenic lines. These results suggest that overexpression of this Alzheimer mutant PS1 in vivo is not by itself sufficient to induce the formation of neurofibrillary tangles, even in neurons co-expressing and accumulating a human tau isoform.

Reelin in plaques of beta-amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 double-transgenic mice.

There is circumstantial evidence that the reelin signaling pathway may contribute to neurodegeneration in the adult brain and could be linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the present immunohistochemical report we studied the reelin expression profile in double-transgenic mice that express both human mutant beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and human mutant presenilin-1. We were able to demonstrate that reelin immunostaining was found together with human APP in the neuritic component of many AD-typical plaques in both hippocampus and neocortex. This observation gives the first evidence for the association of reelin with amyloid deposits.

Intraneuronal Abeta accumulation precedes plaque formation in beta-amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 double-transgenic mice.

beta-Amyloid peptides are key molecules that are involved in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The source and place of the neurotoxic action of Abeta, however, is still a matter of controversial debates. In the present report, we studied the neuropathological events in a transgenic mouse model expressing human mutant beta-amyloid precursor protein and human mutant presenilin-1 in neurons. Western blot and immunohistochemical analysis revealed that intracellular Abeta staining preceded plaque deposition, which started in the hippocampal formation. At later stages, many neuritic Abeta positive plaques were found in all cortical, hippocampal and many other brain areas. Interestingly, intraneuronal Abeta staining was no longer detected in the brain of aged double-transgenic mice, which correlates with the typical neuropathology in the brain of chronic AD patients.

Transgenic expression of the shortest human tau affects its compartmentalization and its phosphorylation as in the pretangle stage of Alzheimer's disease.

We have generated transgenic mice expressing the shortest human tau protein, the microtubule-associated protein that composes paired helical filaments in Alzheimer's disease. Transgenic tau transcripts and proteins were strongly expressed in neurons in the developing and adult brain. In contrast to the endogenous tau that progressively disappeared from neuronal cell bodies during development, the human transgenic tau remained abundant in cell bodies and dendrites of a subset of neurons in the adult. This somatodendritic transgenic tau was immunoreactive with antibodies to tau phosphorylated on Thr181 and Thr231 and with the conformation-dependent Alz50 antibody. A few astrocytes expressing the transgenic tau were strongly immunoreactive with antibodies to additional tau phosphorylation sites, ie, at Ser262/ 356 and Ser396/404. All of these phosphorylation sites have been identified in paired helical filaments-tau proteins. In electron microscopy, the transgenic tau was detected into microtubules in axons and in dendrites but not in cell bodies. Neurofibrillary tangles were not detected in transgenic animals examined up to the age of 19 months. These results indicate that transgenic manipulation of tau expression and intracellular targeting is sufficient per se to affect tau compartmentalization, phosphorylation, and conformation partly as it is observed at the pretangle stage in Alzheimer's disease.

Toxicokinetics of tumor promoters of mouse skin. I. Metabolism of phorbol and ingenol esters by mouse liver microsomes.

The metabolism of ten selected phorbol esters and of one ingenol ester was investigated in mouse liver microsomes fortified with cofactors. The major metabolites were generated by an esterolytic activity in the microsomes. The following 12,13-diesters were cleaved readily to yield the 13-monoesters: 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, phorbol-12,13-dipropionate, bis(13-O-acetylphorbol)-12, 12'-tetradecanedioate, phorbol-12,13-dibenzoate; the monoesters 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol and 3-O-tetradecanoylingenol yielded the corresponding parent alcohols. Other 12,13-di- or 13-monoesters such as 'inverse TPA', i.e. 12-O-acetylphorbol-13-tetradecanoate, phorbol-12,13-didecanoate, 12-O-retinoylphorbol-13-acetate, phorbol-13-decanoate and 12-O-tetradecanoyl-4 alpha-phorbol-13-acetate were either comparatively or completely resistant to esterolysis. The data indicate that metabolism of diterpene esters depends on the nature and position of the acyl moiety, as well as on the structure of the diterpene moiety. The esterolytic activity in mouse liver microsomes can be inhibited by i.p. administration of bis(4-nitrophenyl)phosphate to mice. Evidence for other relevant metabolic pathways besides esterolysis was lacking.

Robust functional gene validation by adenoviral vectors: one-step Escherichia coli-derived recombinant adenoviral genome construction.

We describe here a clonal approach for efficient and robust construction of recombinant adenoviral genomes that holds certain advantages over existing approaches. Transgenes of interest are cloned into a small, conditionally replicating plasmid containing the left end of a recombinant adenoviral genome, encompassing pIX coding regions. Transformation of this plasmid into recombination-competent Escherichia coli bearing a plasmid containing the right end of a recombinant adenoviral genome, commencing from pIX coding regions, yields a stable co-integrated plasmid encoding a full adenoviral genome, by virtue of shared homology in pIX coding regions contained in both plasmids. The recombination process yielding the full adenoviral plasmid requires only one step, and always results in the formation of only the desired recombinant adenoviral genome. Thus, no screening is required to identify the correct plasmid encoding the desired recombinant adenoviral genome. In addition, the plasmid encoding the right-hand side of the adenoviral genome is itself incapable of producing contaminating adenovirus. We have successfully employed this approach to generate over 200 recombinant adenoviruses, obtaining only the desired recombinant adenoviral species each time. The process is amenable to medium-to-high-throughput parallel construction of adenoviral genomes, and as such should aid efforts aimed towards high-throughput functional annotation of therapeutic gene targets, which aim to leverage the benefits of adenoviruses as gene delivery and expression vectors.

DNase-I hypersensitivity analysis of the L-type pyruvate kinase gene in rats and transgenic mice.

The rat L-type pyruvate kinase gene possesses two promoters located 500 bp apart. The L' promoter is specific to erythroid cells. The L promoter is specific to liver and is regulated by diet and hormones; positively by glucose and insulin and negatively by glucagon via cAMP. The DNA elements involved in this tissue-specific and hormone-regulated gene expression are located within 3.2 kbp of 5' flanking region as previously demonstrated by transgenic mice analysis [Tremp, G. L., Boquet, D., Ripoche, M. A., Cognet, M., Yu-Chun, L., Jami, J., Kahn, A. and Daegelen, D. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 19,904-19,910]. Moreover, we have observed in these mice that gene expression was dependent on the transgene copy number and independent of the integration site. We present here DNase-I-hypersensitivity analysis of the endogenous rat L-type pyruvate kinase gene and of two transgene constructs in relation to development, tissue differentiation, nutritional and hormonal status. In rats, two groups of proximal sites were detected on the endogenous gene; hypersensitive site (HSS) HSS-1 in adult liver and HSS-A in fetal liver (a major erythropoietic tissue). Both groups are probably related to the transcriptional initiation complexes at either the L or L' promoter. Two other distal groups were detected; HSS-2 at -3 kbp (with respect to the liver-specific cap site) in adult liver and HSS-B around -4 kbp in fetal liver. These sites are thought to correspond to activating sequences; in adult liver, deletion of a fragment encompassing HSS-2 provokes a dramatic reduction of transcription starting at the L promoter of the transgene. In adult liver, HSS-1 appears to be a transcription-associated site, being greatly weakened in fasted rats, while HSS-2 is transcription independent. The pattern of DNase-I hypersensitivity is similar for the rat endogenous gene and for the complete rat transgene; the liver-specific HSS-1 and HSS-2 are present and the intensity of the sites is correlated to the number of integrated copies. Interestingly, HSS-1 is still detectable and its intensity remains proportional to the number of integrated copies in a truncated transgene with HSS-2 deletion, while this transgene is very weakly (but nevertheless tissue-specifically) expressed. These results strongly suggest that each transgene copy possesses a complete set of specific nucleoprotein complexes and that, with or without HSS-2, the DNA is in a potentially active configuration.

Expression of the rat L-type pyruvate kinase gene from its dual erythroid- and liver-specific promoter in transgenic mice.

The gene for the L-type pyruvate kinase possesses two promoters which are located 500 base pairs apart. The L promoter is specific to liver and regulated by hormones and diet; the L' promoter is specific to erythroid cells. We produced two series of transgenic mice carrying either the entire rat L-pyruvate kinase gene or a minigene devoid of exons two to nine, with 2.7 kilobases of flanking sequences 5' to the cap site of the L' promoter and 1.4 kilobases 3' to the downstream polyadenylation site. In both series the patterns of expression from the two promoters were similar to those of the endogenous rat gene. The rat L promoter was expressed strongly in liver and weakly in kidney and gut of adult transgenic mice. Moreover, it was regulated like the endogenous rat L-pyruvate kinase gene upon hormonal and nutritional adaptation: the level of L-pyruvate kinase mRNA was decreased dramatically by 24 h of starvation, while refeeding a carbohydrate-rich diet strongly stimulated expression of the transgenes. This stimulation was prevented by glucagon. Use of alternative polyadenylation sites in the last exon of the rat L-type pyruvate kinase gene was similar for both types of transgenes and similar to that in rat and not control mice, suggesting that the transgenes contain the sequences that control the choice of polyadenylation site. Transcription of the minigene was higher than that of the entire transgene, probably due to the high copy number of the minigene. At the protein level, rat L subunits encoded by the entire transgene were more abundant than mouse subunits in the liver of adult transgenic mice. In contrast, expression of the rat L' promoter in fetal liver was only 5% of that in fetal rat liver, and we were unable to detect rat L' subunits of pyruvate kinase enzyme in the red blood cells from transgenic mice. Our results suggest that the integrated DNA contains all elements necessary for tissue specificity (L' and L) as well as hormonal and nutritional control (L) of expression of the rat transgene. Nevertheless, a L'-specific activating element may be missing.