Lipid-Mediated Mechanisms of Thermal Adaptation and Thermoregulatory Behavior in Animals.

Temperature affects a variety of cellular processes because the molecular motion of cellular constituents and the rate of biochemical reactions are sensitive to temperature changes. Thus, the adaptation to temperature is necessary to maintain cellular functions during temperature fluctuation, particularly in poikilothermic organisms. For a wide range of organisms, cellular lipid molecules play a pivotal role during thermal adaptation. Temperature changes affect the physicochemical properties of lipid molecules, resulting in the alteration of cell membrane-related functions and energy metabolism. Since the chemical structures of lipid molecules determine their physicochemical properties and cellular functions, cellular lipids, particularly fatty acid-containing lipid molecules, are remodeled as a thermal adaptation response to compensate for the effects of temperature change. In this chapter, we first introduce the structure and biosynthetic pathway of fatty acid-containing lipid molecules, such as phospholipid and triacylglycerol, followed by a description of the cellular lipid-mediated mechanisms of thermal adaptation and thermoregulatory behavior in animals.

Organelle membrane-specific chemical labeling and dynamic imaging in living cells.

Lipids play crucial roles as structural elements, signaling molecules and material transporters in cells. However, the functions and dynamics of lipids within cells remain unclear because of a lack of methods to selectively label lipids in specific organelles and trace their movement by live-cell imaging. We describe here a technology for the selective labeling and fluorescence imaging (microscopic or nanoscopic) of phosphatidylcholine in target organelles. This approach involves the metabolic incorporation of azido-choline, followed by a spatially limited bioorthogonal reaction that enables the visualization and quantitative analysis of interorganelle lipid transport in live cells. More importantly, with live-cell imaging, we obtained direct evidence that the autophagosomal membrane originates from the endoplasmic reticulum. This method is simple and robust and is thus powerful for real-time tracing of interorganelle lipid trafficking.

Regulation of thermoregulatory behavior by commensal bacteria in Drosophila.

Commensal bacteria affect many aspects of host physiology. In this study, we focused on the role of commensal bacteria in the thermoregulatory behavior of Drosophila melanogaster. We demonstrated that the elimination of commensal bacteria caused an increase in the preferred temperature of Drosophila third-instar larvae without affecting the activity of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1)-expressing thermosensitive neurons. We isolated eight bacterial strains from the gut and culture medium of conventionally reared larvae and found that the preferred temperature of the larvae was decreased by mono-association with Lactobacillus plantarum or Corynebacterium nuruki. Mono-association with these bacteria did not affect the indices of energy metabolism such as ATP and glucose levels of larvae, which are closely linked to thermoregulation in animals. Thus, we show a novel role for commensal bacteria in host thermoregulation and identify two bacterial species that affect thermoregulatory behavior in Drosophila.

Hijacking of multiple phospholipid biosynthetic pathways and induction of membrane biogenesis by a picornaviral 3CD protein.

RNA viruses induce specialized membranous structures for use in genome replication. These structures are often referred to as replication organelles (ROs). ROs exhibit distinct lipid composition relative to other cellular membranes. In many picornaviruses, phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PI4P) is a marker of the RO. Studies to date indicate that the viral 3A protein hijacks a PI4 kinase to induce PI4P by a mechanism unrelated to the cellular pathway, which requires Golgi-specific brefeldin A-resistance guanine nucleotide exchange factor 1, GBF1, and ADP ribosylation factor 1, Arf1. Here we show that a picornaviral 3CD protein is sufficient to induce synthesis of not only PI4P but also phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and phosphatidylcholine (PC). Synthesis of PI4P requires GBF1 and Arf1. We identified 3CD derivatives: 3CDm and 3CmD, that we used to show that distinct domains of 3CD function upstream of GBF1 and downstream of Arf1 activation. These same 3CD derivatives still supported induction of PIP2 and PC, suggesting that pathways and corresponding mechanisms used to induce these phospholipids are distinct. Phospholipid induction by 3CD is localized to the perinuclear region of the cell, the outcome of which is the proliferation of membranes in this area of the cell. We conclude that a single viral protein can serve as a master regulator of cellular phospholipid and membrane biogenesis, likely by commandeering normal cellular pathways.

Changes in the physicochemical properties of fish cell membranes during cellular senescence.

Fish cell lines are widely used for the studies of developmental biology, virology, biology of aging, and nutrition physiology. However, little is known about their physicochemical properties. Here, we report the phospholipid compositions and mechanical properties of cell membranes derived from freshwater, anadromous and marine fish species. Biophysical analyses revealed that fish cell lines have highly deformable cell membranes with significantly low membrane tensions and Young's moduli compared with those of mammalian cell lines. The induction of cellular senescence by DNA demethylation using 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine significantly reduced the deformability of fish cell membrane, but hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress did not affect the deformability. Mass spectrometry analysis of phospholipids revealed that the level of phosphatidylethanolamine molecules containing polyunsaturated fatty acids significantly increased during the 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine-induced cellular senescence. Fish cell lines provide a useful model system for studying the changes in the physicochemical properties of cell membranes during cellular senescence.Abbreviations: 2D-TLC: two-dimensional thin layer chromatography; 5-Aza-dC: 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; FBS: fetal bovine serum; PC: phosphatidylcholine; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; PI: phosphatidylinositol; PS: phosphatidylserine; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid; SA-ß-gal: senescence-associated beta-galactosidase; SM: sphingomyelin.

Different mechanisms for selective transport of fatty acids using a single class of lipoprotein in Drosophila.

In mammals, lipids are selectively transported to specific sites using multiple classes of lipoproteins. However, in Drosophila, a single class of lipoproteins, lipophorin, carries more than 95% of the lipids in the hemolymph. Although a unique ability of the insect lipoprotein system for cargo transport has been demonstrated, it remains unclear how this single class of lipoproteins selectively transports lipids. In this study, we carried out a comparative analysis of the fatty-acid composition among lipophorin, the CNS, and CNS-derived cell lines and investigated the transport mechanism of fatty acids, particularly focusing on the transport of PUFAs in Drosophila We showed that PUFAs are selectively incorporated into the acyl chains of lipophorin phospholipids and effectively transported to CNS through lipophorin receptor-mediated endocytosis of lipophorin. In addition, we demonstrated that C14 fatty acids are selectively incorporated into the diacylglycerols (DAGs) of lipophorin and that C14 fatty-acid-containing DAGs are spontaneously transferred from lipophorin to the phospholipid bilayer. These results suggest that PUFA-containing phospholipids and C14 fatty-acid-containing DAGs in lipophorin could be transferred to different sites by different mechanisms to selectively transport fatty acids using a single class of lipoproteins.

Pleckstrin homology domain of p210 BCR-ABL interacts with cardiolipin to regulate its mitochondrial translocation and subsequent mitophagy.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is caused by the chimeric protein p210 BCR-ABL encoded by a gene on the Philadelphia chromosome. Although the kinase domain of p210 BCR-ABL is an active driver of CML, the pathological role of its pleckstrin homology (PH) domain remains unclear. Here, we carried out phospholipid vesicle-binding assays to show that cardiolipin (CL), a characteristic mitochondrial phospholipid, is a unique ligand of the PH domain. Arg726, a basic amino acid in the ligand-binding region, was crucial for ligand recognition. A subset of wild-type p210 BCR-ABL that was transiently expressed in HEK293 cells was dramatically translocated from the cytosol to mitochondria in response to carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) treatment, which induces mitochondrial depolarization and subsequent externalization of CL to the organelle's outer membrane, whereas an R726A mutant of the protein was not translocated. Furthermore, only wild-type p210 BCR-ABL, but not the R726A mutant, suppressed CCCP-induced mitophagy and subsequently enhanced reactive oxygen species production. Thus, p210 BCR-ABL can change its intracellular localization via interactions between the PH domain and CL to cope with mitochondrial damage. This suggests that p210 BCR-ABL could have beneficial effects for cancer proliferation, providing new insight into the PH domain's contribution to CML pathogenesis.

Structure and Function of Δ9-Fatty Acid Desaturase.

Δ9-Fatty acid desaturase (Δ9-desaturase) is a rate-limiting enzyme of unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in animal cells and specifically introduces a cis-double bond at the Δ9-position of acyl-CoA. Since the chemical structure of fatty acids determines the physicochemical properties of cellular membrane and modulates a broad range of cellular functions, double bond introduction into a fatty acid by Δ9-desaturase should be specifically carried out. Reported crystal structures of stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD)1, one of the most studied Δ9-desaturases, have revealed the mechanism underlying the determination of substrate preference, as well as the position (Δ9) and conformation (cis) of double bond introduction. The crystal structures of SCD1 have also provided insights into the function of other Δ9-desaturases, including Drosophila homologs. Moreover, the amino-terminal sequences of Δ9-desaturases are shown to have unique roles in protein degradation. In this review, we introduce recent advances in the understanding of the function and regulation of Δ9-desaturase from the standpoint of protein structure.

An N-terminal di-proline motif is essential for fatty acid-dependent degradation of Δ9-desaturase in Drosophila.

The Δ9-fatty acid desaturase introduces a double bond at the Δ9 position of the acyl moiety of acyl-CoA and regulates the cellular levels of unsaturated fatty acids. However, it is unclear how Δ9-desaturase expression is regulated in response to changes in the levels of fatty acid desaturation. In this study, we found that the degradation of DESAT1, the sole Δ9-desaturase in the Drosophila cell line S2, was significantly enhanced when the amounts of unsaturated acyl chains of membrane phospholipids were increased by supplementation with unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic and linoleic acids. In contrast, inhibition of DESAT1 activity remarkably suppressed its degradation. Of note, removal of the DESAT1 N-terminal domain abolished the responsiveness of DESAT1 degradation to the level of fatty acid unsaturation. Further truncation and amino acid replacement analyses revealed that two sequential prolines, the second and third residues of DESAT1, were responsible for the unsaturated fatty acid-dependent degradation. Although degradation of mouse stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) was unaffected by changes in fatty acid unsaturation, introduction of the N-terminal sequential proline residues into SCD1 conferred responsiveness to unsaturated fatty acid-dependent degradation. Furthermore, we also found that the Ca2+-dependent cysteine protease calpain is involved in the sequential proline-dependent degradation of DESAT1. In light of these findings, we designated the sequential prolines at the second and third positions of DESAT1 as a "di-proline motif," which plays a crucial role in the regulation of Δ9-desaturase expression in response to changes in the level of cellular unsaturated fatty acids.

Transbilayer distribution of lipids at nano scale.

There is a limited number of methods to examine transbilayer lipid distribution in biomembranes. We employed freeze-fracture replica-labelling immunoelectron microscopy in combination with lipid-binding proteins and a peptide to examine both transbilayer distribution and lateral distribution of various phospholipids in mammalian cells. Our results indicate that phospholipids are exclusively distributed either in the outer or inner leaflet of human red blood cell (RBC) membranes. In contrast, in nucleated cells, such as human skin fibroblasts and neutrophils, sphingomyelin was distributed in both leaflets while exhibiting characteristic lipid domains in the inner leaflet. Similar to RBCs, lipid asymmetry was maintained both in resting and thrombin-activated platelets. However, the microparticles released from thrombin-activated platelets lost membrane asymmetry. Our results suggest that the microparticles were shed from platelet plasma membrane domains enriched with phosphatidylserine and/or phosphatidylinositol at the outer leaflet. These findings underscore the strict regulation and cell-type specificity of lipid asymmetry in the plasma membrane.

Upregulated function of mitochondria-associated ER membranes in Alzheimer disease.

Alzheimer disease (AD) is associated with aberrant processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by γ-secretase, via an unknown mechanism. We recently showed that presenilin-1 and -2, the catalytic components of γ-secretase, and γ-secretase activity itself, are highly enriched in a subcompartment of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that is physically and biochemically connected to mitochondria, called mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAMs). We now show that MAM function and ER-mitochondrial communication-as measured by cholesteryl ester and phospholipid synthesis, respectively-are increased significantly in presenilin-mutant cells and in fibroblasts from patients with both the familial and sporadic forms of AD. We also show that MAM is an intracellular detergent-resistant lipid raft (LR)-like domain, consistent with the known presence of presenilins and γ-secretase activity in rafts. These findings may help explain not only the aberrant APP processing but also a number of other biochemical features of AD, including altered lipid metabolism and calcium homeostasis. We propose that upregulated MAM function at the ER-mitochondrial interface, and increased cross-talk between these two organelles, may play a hitherto unrecognized role in the pathogenesis of AD.

Evaluation of aegerolysins as novel tools to detect and visualize ceramide phosphoethanolamine, a major sphingolipid in invertebrates.

Ceramide phosphoethanolamine (CPE), a sphingomyelin analog, is a major sphingolipid in invertebrates and parasites, whereas only trace amounts are present in mammalian cells. In this study, mushroom-derived proteins of the aegerolysin family­pleurotolysin A2 (PlyA2; K(D) = 12 nM), ostreolysin (Oly; K(D) = 1.3 nM), and erylysin A (EryA; K(D) = 1.3 nM)­strongly associated with CPE/cholesterol (Chol)-containing membranes, whereas their low affinity to sphingomyelin/Chol precluded establishment of the binding kinetics. Binding specificity was determined by multilamellar liposome binding assays, supported bilayer assays, and solid-phase studies against a series of neutral and negatively charged lipid classes mixed 1:1 with Chol or phosphatidylcholine. No cross-reactivity was detected with phosphatidylethanolamine. Only PlyA2 also associated with CPE, independent of Chol content (K(D) = 41 µM), rendering it a suitable tool for visualizing CPE in lipid-blotting experiments and biologic samples from sterol auxotrophic organisms. Visualization of CPE enrichment in the CNS of Drosophila larvae (by PlyA2) and in the bloodstream form of the parasite Trypanosoma brucei (by EryA) by fluorescence imaging demonstrated the versatility of aegerolysin family proteins as efficient tools for detecting and visualizing CPE.

Calcium-dependent phospholipid scrambling by TMEM16F.

In all animal cells, phospholipids are asymmetrically distributed between the outer and inner leaflets of the plasma membrane. This asymmetrical phospholipid distribution is disrupted in various biological systems. For example, when blood platelets are activated, they expose phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) to trigger the clotting system. The PtdSer exposure is believed to be mediated by Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipid scramblases that transport phospholipids bidirectionally, but its molecular mechanism is still unknown. Here we show that TMEM16F (transmembrane protein 16F) is an essential component for the Ca(2+)-dependent exposure of PtdSer on the cell surface. When a mouse B-cell line, Ba/F3, was treated with a Ca(2+) ionophore under low-Ca(2+) conditions, it reversibly exposed PtdSer. Using this property, we established a Ba/F3 subline that strongly exposed PtdSer by repetitive fluorescence-activated cell sorting. A complementary DNA library was constructed from the subline, and a cDNA that caused Ba/F3 to expose PtdSer spontaneously was identified by expression cloning. The cDNA encoded a constitutively active mutant of TMEM16F, a protein with eight transmembrane segments. Wild-type TMEM16F was localized on the plasma membrane and conferred Ca(2+)-dependent scrambling of phospholipids. A patient with Scott syndrome, which results from a defect in phospholipid scrambling activity, was found to carry a mutation at a splice-acceptor site of the gene encoding TMEM16F, causing the premature termination of the protein.

Sphingomyelin clustering is essential for the formation of microvilli.

Cellular architectures require regulated mechanisms to correctly localize the appropriate plasma membrane lipids and proteins. Microvilli are dynamic filamentous-actin-based protrusions of the plasma membrane that are found in the apical membrane of epithelial cells. However, it remains poorly understood how their formation is regulated. In the present study, we found that sphingomyelin clustering underlies the formation of microvilli. Clustering of sphingomyelin is required for the co-clustering of the sialomucin membrane protein podocalyxin-1 at microvilli. Podocalyxin-1 recruits ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM)-binding phosphoprotein-50 (EBP50; also known as NHERF1), which recruits ERM proteins and phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase ß (PIP5Kß). Thus, clustering of PIP5Kß leads to local accumulation of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2], which enhances the accumulation of ERM family proteins and induces the formation of microvilli. The present study revealed novel interactions between sphingomyelin and the cytoskeletal proteins from which microvilli are formed, and it clarified the physiological importance of the chemical properties of sphingomyelin that facilitate cluster formation.

Role for phospholipid flippase complex of ATP8A1 and CDC50A proteins in cell migration.

Type IV P-type ATPases (P4-ATPases) and CDC50 family proteins form a putative phospholipid flippase complex that mediates the translocation of aminophospholipids such as phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) from the outer to inner leaflets of the plasma membrane. In Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, at least eight members of P4-ATPases were identified, but only a single CDC50 family protein, CDC50A, was expressed. We demonstrated that CDC50A associated with and recruited P4-ATPase ATP8A1 to the plasma membrane. Overexpression of CDC50A induced extensive cell spreading and greatly enhanced cell migration. Depletion of either CDC50A or ATP8A1 caused a severe defect in the formation of membrane ruffles, thereby inhibiting cell migration. Analyses of phospholipid translocation at the plasma membrane revealed that the depletion of CDC50A inhibited the inward translocation of both PS and PE, whereas the depletion of ATP8A1 inhibited the translocation of PE but not that of PS, suggesting that the inward translocation of cell-surface PE is involved in cell migration. This hypothesis was further examined by using a PE-binding peptide and a mutant cell line with defective PE synthesis; either cell-surface immobilization of PE by the PE-binding peptide or reduction in the cell-surface content of PE inhibited the formation of membrane ruffles, causing a severe defect in cell migration. These results indicate that the phospholipid flippase complex of ATP8A1 and CDC50A plays a major role in cell migration and suggest that the flippase-mediated translocation of PE at the plasma membrane is involved in the formation of membrane ruffles to promote cell migration.

Lipid polarity is maintained in absence of tight junctions.

The role of tight junctions (TJs) in the establishment and maintenance of lipid polarity in epithelial cells has long been a subject of controversy. We have addressed this issue using lysenin, a toxin derived from earthworms, and an influenza virus labeled with a fluorescent lipid, octadecylrhodamine B (R18). When epithelial cells are stained with lysenin, lysenin selectively binds to their apical membranes. Using an artificial liposome, we demonstrated that lysenin recognizes the membrane domains where sphingomyelins are clustered. Interestingly, lysenin selectively stained the apical membranes of epithelial cells depleted of zonula occludens proteins (ZO-deficient cells), which completely lack TJs. Furthermore, the fluorescent lipid inserted into the apical membrane by fusion with the influenza virus did not diffuse to the lateral membrane in ZO-deficient epithelial cells. This study revealed that sphingomyelin-cluster formation occurs only in the apical membrane and that lipid polarity is maintained even in the absence of TJs.

Impaired retrograde membrane traffic through endosomes in a mutant CHO cell defective in phosphatidylserine synthesis.

Phosphatidylserine (PS), a relatively minor constituent in the plasma membrane (PM), participates in various cellular processes such as clearance of apoptotic cells and recruitment of signaling molecules. PS also localizes in the membranes of endocytic organelles, such as recycling endosomes (REs). We recently showed that in REs, PS binds to the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain of evectin-2, thereby regulating retrograde traffic from REs to the Golgi. However, direct evidence that PS has a role in retrograde traffic is lacking. Here, we examined the contribution of PS to endosomal membrane traffic by exploiting a mutant CHO cell line (PSA-3) that is defective in PS synthesis. In PSA-3 cells, the Golgi localization of TGN38, a protein that circulates between the Golgi and the PM through endosomes by retrograde traffic, was abolished, whereas the localizations of other organelle markers remained unchanged. Increasing the cellular PS level by adding ethanolamine to the culture medium restored the Golgi localization of TGN38. Tracking the endocytic fate of cell surface TGN38 that was labeled by anti-TGN38 antibody showed that retrograde transport of TGN38 was impaired at endosomes, not at the PM. These findings provide direct evidence that intracellular PS is required for retrograde traffic through endosomes.

FRMD4A regulates epithelial polarity by connecting Arf6 activation with the PAR complex.

The Par-3/Par-6/aPKC/Cdc42 complex regulates the conversion of primordial adherens junctions (AJs) into belt-like AJs and the formation of linear actin cables during epithelial polarization. However, the mechanisms by which this complex functions are not well elucidated. In the present study, we found that activation of Arf6 is spatiotemporally regulated as a downstream signaling pathway of the Par protein complex. When primordial AJs are formed, Par-3 recruits a scaffolding protein, termed the FERM domain containing 4A (FRMD4A). FRMD4A connects Par-3 and the Arf6 guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), cytohesin-1. We propose that the Par-3/FRMD4A/cytohesin-1 complex ensures accurate activation of Arf6, a central player in actin cytoskeleton dynamics and membrane trafficking, during junctional remodeling and epithelial polarization.

Cellular function of (a)symmetric biological membranes.

In mammalian cells, phospholipids are asymmetrically distributed between the outer and inner leaflets of the plasma membrane. The maintenance of asymmetric phospholipid distribution has been demonstrated to be required for a wide range of cellular functions including cell division, cell migration, and signal transduction. However, we recently reported that asymmetric phospholipid distribution is disrupted in Drosophila cell membranes, and this unique phospholipid distribution leads to the formation of highly deformable cell membranes. In addition, it has become clear that asymmetry in the trans-bilayer distribution of phospholipids is disturbed even in living mammalian cells under certain circumstances. In this article, we introduce our recent studies while focusing on the trans-bilayer distribution of phospholipids, and discuss the cellular functions of (a)symmetric biological membranes.

The mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO1 promotes satellite cell function in muscle regeneration.

Muscle satellite cells (MuSCs), myogenic stem cells in skeletal muscles, play an essential role in muscle regeneration. After skeletal muscle injury, quiescent MuSCs are activated to enter the cell cycle and proliferate, thereby initiating regeneration; however, the mechanisms that ensure successful MuSC division, including chromosome segregation, remain unclear. Here, we show that PIEZO1, a calcium ion (Ca2+)-permeable cation channel activated by membrane tension, mediates spontaneous Ca2+ influx to control the regenerative function of MuSCs. Our genetic engineering approach in mice revealed that PIEZO1 is functionally expressed in MuSCs and that Piezo1 deletion in these cells delays myofibre regeneration after injury. These results are, at least in part, due to a mitotic defect in MuSCs. Mechanistically, this phenotype is caused by impaired PIEZO1-Rho signalling during myogenesis. Thus, we provide the first concrete evidence that PIEZO1, a bona fide mechanosensitive ion channel, promotes proliferation and regenerative functions of MuSCs through precise control of cell division.