Subclinical levels of anxiety but not depression are associated with planning performance in a large population-based sample.

BACKGROUND: Major depression and anxiety disorders are known to negatively influence cognitive performance. Moreover, there is evidence for greater cognitive decline in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder. Except for clinical studies, complex executive planning functions and subclinical levels of anxiety have not been examined in a population-based sample with a broad age range. METHODS: Planning performance was assessed using the Tower of London task in a population-based sample of 4240 participants aged 40-80 years from the Gutenberg Health Study (GHS) and related to self-reported anxiety and depression by means of multiple linear regression analysis. RESULTS: Higher anxiety ratings were associated with lower planning performance (ß = -0.20; p < 0.0001) independent of age (ß = 0.03; p = 0.47). When directly comparing the predictive value of depression and anxiety on cognition, only anxiety attained significance (ß = -0.19; p = 0.0047), whereas depression did not (ß = -0.01; p = 0.71). CONCLUSIONS: Subclinical levels of anxiety but not of depression showed negative associations with cognitive functioning independent of age. Our results demonstrate that associations observed in clinical groups might differ from those in population-based samples, also with regard to the trajectory across the life span. Further studies are needed to uncover causal interrelations of anxiety and cognition, which have been proposed in the literature, in order to develop interventions aimed at reducing this negative affective state and to improve executive functioning.

Reporting standard for describing first responder systems, smartphone alerting systems, and AED networks.

Standardized reporting of data is crucial for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) research. While the implementation of first responder systems dispatching volunteers to OHCA is encouraged, there is currently no uniform reporting standard for describing these systems. A steering committee established a literature search to identify experts in smartphone alerting systems. These international experts were invited to a conference held in Hinterzarten, Germany, with 40 researchers from 13 countries in attendance. Prior to the conference, participants submitted proposals for parameters to be included in the reporting standard. The conference comprised five workshops covering different aspects of smartphone alerting systems. Proposed parameters were discussed, clarified, and consensus was achieved using the Nominal Group Technique. Participants voted in a modified Delphi approach on including each category as a core or supplementary element in the reporting standard. Results were presented, and a writing group developed definitions for all categories and items, which were sent to participants for revision and final voting using LimeSurvey web-based software. The resulting reporting standard consists of 68 core items and 21 supplementary items grouped into five topics (first responder system, first responder network, technology/algorithm/strategies, reporting data, and automated external defibrillators (AED)). This proposed reporting standard generated by an expert opinion group fills the gap in describing first responder systems. Its adoption in future research will facilitate comparison of systems and research outcomes, enhancing the transfer of scientific findings to clinical practice.

Planning abilities and chess: a comparison of chess and non-chess players on the Tower of London task.

Playing chess requires problem-solving capacities in order to search through the chess problem space in an effective manner. Chess should thus require planning abilities for calculating many moves ahead. Therefore, we asked whether chess players are better problem solvers than non-chess players in a complex planning task. We compared planning performance between chess ( N=25) and non-chess players ( N=25) using a standard psychometric planning task, the Tower of London (ToL) test. We also assessed fluid intelligence (Raven Test), as well as verbal and visuospatial working memory. As expected, chess players showed better planning performance than non-chess players, an effect most strongly expressed in difficult problems. On the other hand, they showed longer planning and movement execution times, especially for incorrectly solved trials. No differences in fluid intelligence and verbal/visuospatial working memory were found between both groups. These findings indicate that better performance in chess players is associated with disproportionally longer solution times, although it remains to be investigated whether motivational or strategic differences account for this result.

Association of Type D personality with cognitive functioning in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease - The Gutenberg Health Study.

OBJECTIVE: Distressed ('Type D') personality is associated with adverse health outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD). While personality traits from the Five-Factor Model are related to cognitive functioning, neither Type D personality nor its underlying traits negative affectivity (NA) and social inhibition (SI) have been investigated regarding cognition. We therefore compared the predictive value of Type D classification and its subcomponents NA and SI on planning performance in individuals with and without CVD. METHODS: Type D personality traits (DS14) were determined in a population-based sample of 4026 participants (including 549 with CVD) aged 40-80years from the Gutenberg Health Study (GHS) and related to planning performance as assessed with the Tower of London task. Current depression and anxiety were controlled as state variables. RESULTS: Type D personality status was negatively associated with planning performance in the CVD patient group only (p<0.001) but had no impact in the non-CVD group (p=0.40). In the overall sample, NA was negatively and SI positively associated with planning performance. No differential effect on planning between groups was found for depression and anxiety. CONCLUSION: While the subcomponents NA and SI in the population-based sample confirm and extend previous research on personality traits and cognition, Type D personality classification in combination with CVD emerged as a risk factor for decreased cognitive functioning, independent of depression and anxiety. These findings implicate the need to early focus on individual differences in cognitive functioning in patients with CVD.

What is in a name: comparing the Tower of London with one of its variants.

Since the implementation of the Tower of London (ToL) test by Shallice in 1982, numerous variants differing in the tower's physical appearance have been developed. Here we compare behavioral performance (n = 31) on the original Tower of London task consisting of three rods of unequal lengths with a three-ball version of the Ward and Allport Tower Task (1997) using three equally sized rods. In the problem set used, the start and goal states for both tower configurations were identical across all trials. The experiment was divided into two parts: in the first block, the problems presented were equalized with respect to the number of paths for achieving an optimal solution, the minimum number of moves, goal hierarchy, subgoaling patterns, and suboptimal alternatives between the two tower versions. As expected, participants showed the same performance scores for both types of towers when structural problem parameters were identical. In the second block, participants had to solve five-move problems which-due to the different rod sizes of the towers-had only one optimal solution in the original version, but two optimal solutions in the variant with three rods of equal length. Participants revealed lower performance scores and showed longer planning times in the original version than in the second tower version. These findings demonstrate that the two tower versions are only interchangeable when specific planning parameters are equalized. Otherwise, even if problems look identical, significant differences in performance may be found due to the differing problem spaces in the two tower versions.

The Tower of London: the impact of instructions, cueing, and learning on planning abilities.

The Tower of London (ToL) is a well-known test of planning ability, and commonly used for the purpose of neuropsychological assessment and cognitive research. Its widespread application has led to numerous versions differing in a number of respects. The present study addressed the question whether differences in instruction, cueing, and learning processes systematically influence ToL performance across five difficulty levels (three to seven moves). A total of 81 normal adults were examined in a mixed design with the between-subject factor instruction (online versus mental preplanning) and the within-subject factors cueing (cue versus non-cue test version) and learning processes (first block and second block). We also assessed general intelligence for further analyses of differences between instruction groups. In general, there was a significant main effect across the difficulty levels indicating that the rate of incorrect solutions increased with problem difficulty. The participants who were instructed to make full mental plans before beginning to execute movements (preplanning) solved significantly more problems than people who started immediately with task-related movements (online). As for the cueing conditions, participants with the minimum number of moves predetermined (cue) could solve more trials than people who were only instructed to solve the problems in as few moves as possible (non-cue). Participants generally increased performance in the second part of the test session. However, an interaction of presentation order of the cueing condition with learning indicated that people who started the tasks with the non-cue version showed significantly better performance in the following cue condition, while participants who started with the cue condition stayed at the same performance level for both versions. These findings suggest that instruction, cueing conditions, and learning processes are important determinants of ToL performance, and they stress the necessity of standardized application in research and clinical practice.

Childhood febrile convulsions--which factors determine the subsequent epilepsy syndrome? A retrospective study.

To analyze the spectrum of epilepsy syndromes which follow childhood febrile convulsions (FC) and to examine whether retrospective analysis of clinical features of the FC enables discrimination of patients who develop temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) from those who develop generalized epilepsy (GE). One hundred and thirteen patients with epilepsy and antecedent FC were retrospectively analyzed. We inquired in detail about the clinical characteristics of FC (age, duration, number, focal symptoms) as well as family history, birth history, neurological status, and psychomotor development before onset of FC. Forty five (39.8%) patients had TLE, 41 (36.6%) GE, and 27 (23.9%) had extratemporal epilepsy (ETE). Patients with TLE had a significantly longer duration of FC (P< or =0.001), more often focal features (P< or =0.001), and febrile status epilepticus (P< or =0.001) than patients with GE. Age at FC, Number of FC, family history, birth history and neurological status at FC did not differ between groups. A stepwise discriminant model allowed correct assignment after cross validation in 84.2% to TLE and in 100% to GE. A broad spectrum of epilepsy syndromes follow FC. We found a strong association of prolonged and focal FC with later development of TLE. Short generalized FC were associated with GE.

[123I] beta-CIT binding and SPET compared with clinical diagnosis in parkinsonism.

The largest group of neurodegenerative disorders are extrapyramidal diseases, especially parkinsonism. The development of the cocaine derivative [123I] beta-CIT and single photon emission tomography (SPET) may help in the diagnosis of these patients. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the diagnostic value of this method and its relationship with clinical data. Ninety-eight individuals were investigated: 11 healthy volunteers, 58 patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (IPD) and 29 patients with symptomatic parkinsonism (SPD). All patients with parkinsonism were staged according to the clinical classification of Hoehn and Yahr. [123I] beta-CIT was injected intravenously and a triple-headed camera was used to obtain images 20 h later. The images were evaluated visually and semi-quantitatively to obtain comparable values (ratio: specific to non-displaceable binding). The ratios differed significantly between controls and IPD patients. A significant correlation also existed between the ratios and clinical stages. In 11 hemiparkinsonian patients, a significantly diminished ratio was demonstrated not only contralateral to the affected side, but also in the clinically silent striatum. A clinical threshold at a reduction of 34% [123I] beta-CIT binding was calculated in this group. The ratios of all SPD patients in our study did not differ significantly from those of the healthy volunteers. According to the clinical degree of symptoms, the more severe subgroup showed a diminished mean ratio of 22% and therefore could not be clearly differentiated from mild IPD. In contrast, ratios were significantly different when comparing groups of the same clinical severity. We conclude that this method is not only a powerful diagnostic tool in IPD patients, but it is also possible to differentiate between IPD and SPD patients, if clinical aspects are also included.

Clinical relevance of 201Tl-chloride SPET in the differential diagnosis of brain tumours.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) may not be reliable in the differential diagnosis of tumour necrosis, scar and recurrent tumour. We compared 201Tl-chloride SPET with CT and MRI for the differential diagnosis of these cerebral lesions. Brain SPET was performed in 40 patients after the intravenous injection of 201Tl-chloride. All 40 patients also had a CT or MRI scan, and a histological diagnosis was available for 27 of the patients. For each patient, the ratio of counts in the lesion region of interest (ROI) to counts in the contralateral ROI was calculated and found to be between 0.58 and 9.60. The ratios for high-grade gliomas, metastases and meningiomas were high (> 2.7), especially in tumours with good vascularization. A low ratio (< 1.7) was noted in patients with low-grade astrocytoma, necrosis or ischaemic lesions. There were two exceptional cases of ischaemic lesions in the luxury perfusion stage (ratios of 3.61 and 3.87), as verified by HMPAO-SPET. We found that 201Tl-chloride SPET helps to differentiate between malignant tumours, poorly vascularized benign lesions and necrosis. Differentiation between low-grade astrocytoma and non-malignant lesions was not possible, but there was a trend towards differentiating between low-grade astrocytoma and ischaemic infarction. The timing of the investigation is important to avoid false-positive results in hyperperfused ischaemic tissue.

Are demographic and socioeconomic factors predictive for perceived tinnitus impairment?

Patients suffering from chronic tinnitus were analyzed to examine whether tinnitus impairments can be predicted by demographic and socioeconomic factors. For this purpose, subjective tinnitus complaints were measured in 153 patients using the tinnitus impairment questionnaire (THI-12) that distinguishes between emotional-cognitive and functional-communicative factors. Age, gender, marital status, and education levels were assessed and treated as predictive variables. In computing canonical correlations, only the level of education served as a significant emotional-cognitive predictor for tinnitus impairment. Patients with lower education demonstrated impairments in the emotional-cognitive domain that were more marked than those in higher-educated people. The results indicated that demographic and socioeconomic variables have no predictive value for tinnitus impairments, with the exception of a person's level of education.

Perceived conflicts and errors in complex problem solving.

In a behavioral experiment on 60 healthy volunteers, the Tower of London was employed as a complex visuo-spatial planning task. After each trial, participants were asked how difficult they found the task and whether they thought their solution was optimal. Results showed that objective problem difficulty affected behavioral performance as well as subjectively experienced difficulty and performance certainty. This pattern was influenced by experimental manipulation of participants' knowledge of objective problem difficulty: For optimally solved problems, performance certainty remained at high levels if such knowledge was provided, and strongly declined in more difficult problems if it was withheld. For nonoptimally solved problems, subjects' ratings indicated awareness of errors when they were informed about objective problem difficulty; otherwise, performance certainty declined from intermediate to low levels in more difficult problems. No such interaction was observed with regard to ratings of subjective problem difficulty. Additional structural equation modeling revealed that subjective awareness of errors and processing conflicts can be considered as independent only for optimally solved trials in which the optimal solution was known to the participants. We conclude that participants' ratings of problem difficulty and performance certainty can be regarded as indicators of at least partly distinct processes of performance monitoring, and that studies of complex problem solving incorporating such subjective measures may enhance the empirical basis of current theories of executive functioning.

Ericksonian hypnosis in tinnitus therapy: effects of a 28-day inpatient multimodal treatment concept measured by Tinnitus-Questionnaire and Health Survey SF-36.

For the first time, the therapeutic effects on subacute and chronic tinnitus of an inpatient multimodal treatment concept based on principles of Ericksonian hypnosis (EH) were examined by standardized criteria of the Tinnitus Questionnaire (TQ) and Health Survey (SF-36) within a controlled prospective, longitudinal study. A total of 393 patients were treated within an inpatient closed-group 28-day-setting based on a resource-oriented, hypnotherapeutic concept. The severity of tinnitus was assessed by TQ at times of admission, discharge and also at a 6- and 12-month follow-up. Health-related quality of life was evaluated before and after therapy using the SF-36. After therapy, a decrease in TQ score was seen in 90.5% of the patients with subacute tinnitus and in 88,3% of those with chronic tinnitus. Assessment of the TQ score at the end of therapy revealed highly significant improvements of 15.9/14.1 points in mean. Effect sizes in the treatment groups (0.94/0.80) were superior to those in the waiting-list controls (0.14/0.23). The TQ score remained stable in the follow-up controls. Significant improvement in health-related quality of life has been observed within the treatment groups depending on initial level of tinnitus serverity I-IV according to TQ. Using a multimodal treatment concept with emphasis on resource-activating approaches of EH the annoyance of tinnitus can be significantly reduced while health-related quality of life is enhanced within a comparatively short treatment period of 28 days.

Assessment of cognitive functions before and after stereotactic interstitial radiosurgery of hypothalamic hamartomas in patients with gelastic seizures.

We assessed cognitive functions before and 3 months after interstitial radiotherapy in 14 patients with gelastic seizures caused by hypothalamic hamartoma. Cognitive functioning was assessed before temporary implantation of (125)I-seed and 3 months after seed explantation. Performance was compared with that of a selected control group of conservatively treated patients with symptomatic focal epilepsy tested before add-on treatment with a new antiepileptic drug and after reaching steady state. No short-term negative side effects of the interstitial radiosurgery could be observed for the domains of attention and executive functions and verbal and figural memory performance. Cognitive development of the patients treated with seeds was comparable to that of the control group at both assessments. Thus, the stereotactic implantation of (125)I-seeds in this patient group with gelastic seizures caused by hypothalamic hamartoma provides a well-tolerated minimally invasive method in the treatment of this severe epileptic syndrome without negative cognitive side effects.

Tracking the subprocesses of decision-based action in the human frontal lobes.

Situationally adaptive behavior relies on the identification of relevant target stimuli, the evaluation of these with respect to the current context and the selection of an appropriate action. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to disentangle the neural networks underlying these processes within a single task. Our results show that activation of mid-ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) reflects the perceived presence of a target stimulus regardless of context, whereas context-appropriate evaluation is subserved by mid-dorsolateral PFC. Enhancing demands on response selection by means of response conflict activated a network of regions, all of which are directly connected to motor areas. On the midline, rostral anterior paracingulate cortex was found to link target detection and response selection by monitoring for the presence of behaviorally significant conditions. In summary, we provide new evidence for process-specific functional dissociations in the frontal lobes. In target-centered processing, target detection in the VLPFC is separable from contextual evaluation in the DLPFC. Response-centered processing in motor-associated regions occurs partly in parallel to these processes, which may enhance behavioral efficiency, but it may also lead to reaction time increases when an irrelevant response tendency is elicited.

The influence of sex differences and individual task performance on brain activation during planning.

Several studies have attempted to identify the neuronal basis of sex differences in cognition. However, group differences in cognitive ability rather than genuine neurocognitive differences between the sexes may account for their results. Here, we compare with functional magnetic resonance imaging the relation between gender, individual task performance, and planning-related brain activation. Men and women preselected to display identical performance scores showed a strong relation between individual task performance and activation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal and right inferior parietal cortex activation during a visuospatial planning task. No gender-specific activations were found. However, a different pattern emerged when subjects had to execute the motor responses to the problems. Better performance was associated with right dorsolateral prefrontal and right parahippocampal activations, and females exhibited a stronger right hippocampal activation than males. These findings underline that an individual's performance level rather than his or her sex largely determines the neuronal activation patterns during higher-level cognition.

Multimodal P3 under different attentional states in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Several studies demonstrate that the P3 component of the event-related potentials (ERP) is generated by mesial temporal structures. The P3 is considered as endogenous information processing component independent from modality. PURPOSE: The aim of this investigation was to study whether the P3 latency elicited by auditory and visual stimuli under different attentional states is influenced by the mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (mTLE). METHODS: The event related P3 component of 10 right handed patients (7 m/3 f, mean age 31.3 years (SD 7.3), median 31.5, range 20-47) with unilateral mTLE were studied and compared with 10 age matched controls (5 m/5 f, mean age 36.6 years (SD 12.6), median 32.1, range 22-48). Diagnosis of mTLE was based on seizure description, clinical history and examination, prolonged video-EEG monitoring, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), interictal and ictal SPECT. P3 potentials were elicited with a visual and auditory three stimulus discrimination paradigm. RESULTS: The latency of the P3 response to the auditory stimulus under automatic and effortful attention was delayed (423.3 ms (SD 60.4) and 436.9 ms (SD 83.4)) compared with a control group (359 ms (SD 42.4) and 354.2 ms (SD 39.7); P = 0.039 and P = 0.012, ANOVA), while the P3 latencies to visual stimuli under both tested attentional states (407.3 ms (SD 52.9) and 390.6 ms (SD 40.2)) did not differ from controls (378.2 ms (SD 48.6) and 378.2 ms (SD 55.4)). P3 latencies to auditory novel paradigm in patients with right sided mTLE, but not left sided mTLE, differed significantly from controls (P = 0.01). CONCLUSION: The results suggest a modality dependence of the P3 component in patients with mTLE. The novelty processing of auditory stimuli is disturbed in patients with right sided mTLE.

Measuring the progression of idiopathic Parkinson's disease with [123I] beta-CIT SPECT.

UNLABELLED: Idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder. An important step in diagnosing the disease has been achieved with the development of the cocaine derivative [123I] beta-CIT for single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The aim of this study was to demonstrate the disease progression by repeated measuring presynaptic dopamine transporter density and relating it to clinical data. METHODS: The presynaptic dopamine transporter density of 15 PD patients was measured two times with a mean interval of 15 months. All patients were clinically assessed at the time of the experiments according to the classification scheme of Hoehn and Yahr. 11 healthy volunteers were used as a control group. [123I] [-CIT was injected intravenously and measured with a triple-headed camera twenty hours later. The pictures were evaluated semiquantitatively by using the ratio of specific to non-displaceable binding. RESULTS: Presynaptic dopamine transporter density differed significantly between controls and PD patients. A significant correlation between imaging data and clinical stages (H/Y I -27%, H/Y II -40%, H/Y III -58%) was observed for the patient group in the initial experiment. The subsequent decrease of dopamine transporter binding depended on the initial clinical stage (H/Y I -6.81%; H/Y II -6.05%; H/Y III -1.25%) of the patients, and regression analysis revealed that. 91.4% of the variance of the second measurement were predicted by the initial measurement. No correlations were found for age, gender and disease progression. All patients were treated with L-DOPA and those given a higher dose showed a more rapid decrease of dopamine transporter density. This result could be interpreted as an indication for in vivo neurotoxicity of high concentrations of L-DOPA. CONCLUSION: We conclude that combining [123I] beta-CIT with SPECT imaging is not only a powerful tool for diagnosing PD patients, but may also be used to demonstrate neurodegeneration in vivo.

Lateralized cognitive visuospatial processing: is it primarily gender-related or due to quality of performance? A HMPAO-SPECT study.

The brain activity of 13 right-handed students (6 men and 7 women) was determined using high resolution (99m)Tc-HMPAO brain SPECT images during visuospatial tasks. The results showed that there was no significant gender-specific difference in solving the visuospatial tasks and that no meaningful statistical difference in brain activity between the two sexes could be found. When the sample was split into groups of good and poor performers, the results showed that there was a relatively symmetrical brain activity both frontal and parietal in subjects with poor test results. The results for those who performed the tests well, on the other hand, showed increased left frontal and right parietal brain activity. These results would suggest an asymmetric type of processing for better visuospatial brain performance independent of gender.

Delayed visual P3 in unilateral thalamic stroke.

The P3 potential is accepted as a neurophysiological correlate of memory and attention. Delayed latencies were reported in different forms of dementias. Although the generator sites are still under debate, the thalamus may play a crucial role. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of an unilateral thalamic ischaemic infarction on P3 generation. The event-related P3 component of six patients (2 male, four female; mean age 47 years, range 22-63 years) with unilateral thalamic ischaemic infarction was studied and compared to age-matched controls (five male, nine female; mean age 45.8 years; range 22-69 years). All patients underwent full clinical examination, CCT, and MRI scan. P3 potentials were recorded with a visual three stimulus discrimination paradigm. The mean P3 latency of the patient group to the target stimulus was delayed (469.7 ms, SD = 36.8) compared with the controls (378.8 ms, SD = 51.5; P < 0. 05). The mean P3 latency to the unexpected stimulus was delayed in patients with thalamic infarction compared with controls [477 ms (SD = 46.6) vs. 381.2 ms (SD = 48.5); P < 0.001). Delayed P3 components of the event-related potential (ERP) were recorded in six patients with unilateral thalamic infarction, suggesting an important role of the thalamus in the generation of the P3 potential.

Multimodal event-related potential P3 after transient global amnesia.

The putative generators of the event-related P3 component are still a matter of debate. There is reasonable evidence that the mesial temporal lobe structures are crucial in the generation of event-related potentials. Transient global amnesia (TGA) is characterized by anterograde and retrograde amnesia without neurological deficits in which a temporal hypoperfusion is the most likely pathomechanism. The aim of this study is to evaluate a possible delay in the P3 latency in a cohort of patients with TGA (n = 18). We used classic oddball paradigms with visual and auditory stimuli. The P3 latencies were compared to 18 age-matched patients with transient ischaemic attacks (TIAs) in the carotid artery territory and 23 age-matched controls. The mean age of the patients was 60.1 years (SD 14.1), in the TIA group 64.7 (SD 12.1) and 57.7 (SD 10.1) in the controls; the mean time interval between onset of TGA symptoms and performance of P3 investigations was 4.3 days (range 1-7 days); and the mean latencies measured at the vertex (Cz electrode) were 422.9 ms (SD 44.6) for the TGA patients, 436.4 ms (SD 62.1) for the TIA group, and 409.3 ms (SD 48.5) for the controls in the visual paradigm and 371.7 ms (SD 41.7), 399.7 ms (SD 51.2) and 385.3 ms (SD 46.5) in the auditory paradigm for the TGA, the TIA and the control groups. The P-values were not significant. These results suggest different neuronal networks in the generation of scalp P3 from those responsible for the disturbance of episodic memory in TGA.