Linear growth beyond 24 months and child neurodevelopment in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIM: To synthesize available evidence on the association between change in linear growth (height for age z score, HAZ) beyond the first two years of life with later child neurodevelopment outcomes in Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and EMBASE for cohort studies on the association between change in HAZ after age two and neurodevelopment outcomes in middle or late childhood. Data extraction was done independently by two reviewers. RESULTS: A total of 21 studies, that included 64,562 children from 13 LMICs were identified. Each unit increase in change in HAZ above two years is associated with a + 0.01 increase (N = 8 studies, 27,393 children) in the cognitive scores at 3.5 to 12 years of age and a + 0.05-standard deviation (SD) increase (95% CI 0.02 to 0.08, N = 3 studies, 17,830 children) in the language score at 5 to 15 years of age. No significant association of change in HAZ with motor (standardized mean difference (SMD) 0.04; 95% CI: -0.10, 0.18, N = 1 study, 966 children) or socio-emotional scores (SMD 0.00; 95% CI: -0.02, 0.01, N = 4 studies, 14,616 participants) was observed. CONCLUSION: Changes in HAZ after the first two years of life appear to have a small or no association with child neurodevelopment outcomes in LMICs.

Child Neurodevelopment After Multidomain Interventions From Preconception Through Early Childhood: The WINGS Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Multidomain interventions in pregnancy and early childhood have improved child neurodevelopment, but little is known about the effects of additional preconception interventions. Objective: To evaluate the effect of a multifaceted approach including health; nutrition; water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH); and psychosocial support interventions delivered during the preconception period and/or during pregnancy and early childhood on child neurodevelopment. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this randomized trial involving low- and middle-income neighborhoods in Delhi, India, 13 500 participants were assigned to preconception interventions or routine care for the primary outcome of preterm births and childhood growth. Participants who became pregnant were randomized to pregnancy and early childhood interventions or routine care. Neurodevelopmental assessments, the trial's secondary outcome reported herein, were conducted in a subsample of children at age 24 months, including 509 with preconception, pregnancy, and early childhood interventions; 473 with preconception interventions alone; 380 with pregnancy and early childhood interventions alone; and 350 with routine care. This study was conducted from November 1, 2000, through February 25, 2022. Interventions: Health, nutrition, psychosocial care and support, and WASH interventions delivered during preconception, pregnancy, and early childhood periods. Main Outcomes and Measures: Cognitive, motor, language, and socioemotional performance at age 24 months, assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development 3 tool. Results: The mean age of participants at enrollment was 23.8 years (SD, 3.0 years). Compared with the controls at age 24 months, children in the preconception intervention groups had higher cognitive scores (mean difference [MD], 1.16; 98.3% CI, 0.18-2.13) but had similar language, motor, and socioemotional scores as controls. Those receiving pregnancy and early childhood interventions had higher cognitive (MD, 1.48; 98.3% CI, 0.49-2.46), language (MD, 2.29; 98.3% CI, 1.07-3.50), motor (MD, 1.53; 98.3% CI, 0.65-2.42), and socioemotional scores (MD, 4.15; 98.3% CI, 2.18-6.13) than did controls. The pregnancy and early childhood group also had lower incidence rate ratios (RRs) of moderate to severe delay in cognitive (incidence RR, 0.62; 98.3% CI, 0.40-0.96), language (incidence RR, 0.73; 98.3% CI, 0.57-0.93), and socioemotional (incidence RR, 0.49; 98.3% CI, 0.24-0.97) development than did those in the control group. Children in the preconception, pregnancy, and early childhood intervention group had higher cognitive (MD, 2.60; 98.3% CI, 1.08-4.12), language (MD, 3.46; 98.3% CI, 1.65-5.27), motor (MD, 2.31; 98.3% CI, 0.93-3.69), and socioemotional (MD, 5.55; 98.3% CI, 2.66-8.43) scores than did those in the control group. Conclusions and Relevance: Multidomain interventions during preconception, pregnancy and early childhood led to modest improvements in child neurodevelopment at 24 months. Such interventions for enhancing children's development warrant further evaluation. Trial Registration: Clinical Trials Registry-India CTRI/2017/06/008908.

Milk-cereal mix supplementation during infancy and impact on neurodevelopmental outcomes at 12 and 24 months of age: a randomised controlled trial in India.

Inadequate protein intake and lack of micronutrients may affect neurodevelopment in infants. This randomised controlled trial was conducted to measure the effect of two milk-cereal mixes with modest and high amounts of protein and enriched with multiple micronutrients, given between 6 and 12 months, on cognitive, language, motor and behavioural scores at 12 and 24 months of age, compared with no-supplementation. The two supplements were also compared with each other. The study was conducted in urban Delhi, India, and the infants were randomised in a 1:1:1 ratio to the three study groups. At 12 and 24 months of age, 1134 and 1214 children were available, respectively. At 12 months of age, compared with no-supplement group, an increase in the motor scores (mean difference, MD 1·52, 95 % CI: 0·28, 2·75) and a decrease in the infant temperament scores (MD - 2·76, 95 % CI: -4·23, -1·29) in the modest-protein group was observed. Those in the high-protein group had lower socio-emotional scores (MD - 1·40, 95 % CI: -2·43, -0·37) and higher scores on Infant Temperament Scale (MD 2·05, 95 % CI: 0·62, 3·48) when compared with modest-protein group. At 24 months, no significant differences in any of the neurodevelopment scores between the three study groups was found. In conclusion, supplementation with modest amount of protein and multiple micronutrients may lead to short-term small improvements in motor function and infant temperament. There appears no advantage of supplementing with high protein, rather negative effects on infant behaviour were observed.

Harmonization of maternal balanced energy-protein supplementation studies for individual participant data (IPD) meta-analyses - finding and creating similarities in variables and data collection.

BACKGROUND: Public health and clinical recommendations are established from systematic reviews and retrospective meta-analyses combining effect sizes, traditionally, from aggregate data and more recently, using individual participant data (IPD) of published studies. However, trials often have outcomes and other meta-data that are not defined and collected in a standardized way, making meta-analysis problematic. IPD meta-analysis can only partially fix the limitations of traditional, retrospective, aggregate meta-analysis; prospective meta-analysis further reduces the problems. METHODS: We developed an initiative including seven clinical intervention studies of balanced energy-protein (BEP) supplementation during pregnancy and/or lactation that are being conducted (or recently concluded) in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, India, Nepal, and Pakistan to test the effect of BEP on infant and maternal outcomes. These studies were commissioned after an expert consultation that designed recommendations for a BEP product for use among pregnant and lactating women in low- and middle-income countries. The initiative goal is to harmonize variables across studies to facilitate IPD meta-analyses on closely aligned data, commonly called prospective meta-analysis. Our objective here is to describe the process of harmonizing variable definitions and prioritizing research questions. A two-day workshop of investigators, content experts, and advisors was held in February 2020 and harmonization activities continued thereafter. Efforts included a range of activities from examining protocols and data collection plans to discussing best practices within field constraints. Prior to harmonization, there were many similar outcomes and variables across studies, such as newborn anthropometry, gestational age, and stillbirth, however, definitions and protocols differed. As well, some measurements were being conducted in several but not all studies, such as food insecurity. Through the harmonization process, we came to consensus on important shared variables, particularly outcomes, added new measurements, and improved protocols across studies. DISCUSSION: We have fostered extensive communication between investigators from different studies, and importantly, created a large set of harmonized variable definitions within a prospective meta-analysis framework. We expect this initiative will improve reporting within each study in addition to providing opportunities for a series of IPD meta-analyses.

Early child stimulation, linear growth and neurodevelopment in low birth weight infants.

BACKGROUND: Children with low birth weight (LBW) are at risk of linear growth faltering and developmental deficits. Evidence suggests that early child stimulation and care reflected as responsive caregiving and opportunities for learning can promote development. The current analysis aimed to measure the extent to which linear growth and early child stimulation modify each other's association with neurodevelopmental outcomes among LBW infants. METHODS: This is a secondary data analyses from a randomized controlled trial on the effect of community-initiated kangaroo mother care in LBW infants on their neurodevelopment at 12 months of corrected age. Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development was used to assess cognitive, motor and language scores. Stimulation at home was assessed by the Pediatric Review of Children's Environmental Support and Stimulation (PROCESS) tool. PROCESS scores were categorized into three groups: < Mean-1SD (low stimulation); Mean ± 1 SD (moderate stimulation) and > mean + 1SD (high stimulation). RESULTS: A total of 516 infants were available for neurodevelopment assessments. Interactions were observed between length for age z-score (LAZ) and PROCESS score categories. In the low stimulation group, the adjusted regression coefficients for the association between LAZ and cognitive, motor and language scores were substantially higher than in the moderate and high stimulation group. Stimulation was positively associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes in both stunted and non-stunted infants; however, the association was twice as strong in stunted than in non-stunted. CONCLUSION: Moderate to high quality stimulation may alleviate the risk of sub-optimal development in LBW infants with linear growth deficits. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: The primary trial whose data are analysed is registered at clinicaltrials.gov ( https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02631343 ).

Linear Growth between Early and Late Childhood and Cognitive Outcomes at 6-9 Years of Age.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the extent to which linear growth beyond the early years of life determines later cognitive development. STUDY DESIGN: We revisited children from New Delhi, India, who had participated in a randomized controlled trial 6 years before and assessed neurodevelopment using standardized and validated psychometric tools (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th edition; Crichton Vocabulary Scales; and Neuropsychological test battery). The associations of change in height for age z scores between early (12-36 months) and late (6-9 years) childhood with cognitive outcomes at 6-9 years of age were explored using linear regression models, after adjustment for appropriate confounders. RESULTS: Out of the 1000 North Indian children who were enrolled in the original study, 791 consented to participate in this follow-up. Height for age z scores in the first 2 years of life was significantly associated with both the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Crichton Vocabulary Scales (standardized ß coefficient [ß], 0.15; 95% CI, 0.08-0.23), and the Neuropsychological test battery-II z-score (ß, 0.09; 95% CI, 0.03-0.18) at 6-9 years of age. There were no significant associations between change in height for age z scores between early and later childhood and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Crichton Vocabulary Scales (ß, -0.03; 95% CI, -0.11 to 0.04) or Neuropsychological test battery-II z-scores (ß, -0.04; 95% CI, -0.12 to 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: Linear growth between early and late childhood is not associated with later cognitive outcomes. Our findings support the current practice of investing public health efforts to accelerate linear growth in the first 2-3 years of life.

Effect of prebiotic and probiotic supplementation on neurodevelopment in preterm very low birth weight infants: findings from a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Preterm very low birth weight (VLBW) infants are at risk of gut dysbiosis and neurodevelopmental deficits. Prebiotics and probiotics may modulate gut microbiota and influence brain functions. This review synthesizes literature on effect of prebiotic and/or probiotic supplementation in preterm VLBW on their neurodevelopmental outcomes. METHODS: Search was done using PubMed and CENTRAL. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in preterm infants (<37 weeks gestation) and/or infants with birth weight <1500 g that evaluated the effect of prebiotic and/or probiotic supplementation on neurodevelopmental outcomes were included. Weighted mean difference in cognitive and motor scores; pooled relative risks for cognitive and motor impairment, cerebral palsy, hearing, and visual impairment were estimated. Quality of evidence was assessed using the GRADE criteria. RESULTS: Out of 275 articles identified, seven were included for review. All, except one, were done in preterms <33 weeks of gestation. Age of assessment of outcomes was ≥18-22 months of corrected age in five studies. Interventions did not decrease or increase the risk of cognitive and motor impairment, cerebral palsy, visual, and hearing impairment. Quality of evidence was "low" to "very low." CONCLUSIONS: Limited evidence from RCTs does not demonstrate a difference in neurodevelopmental outcomes between prebiotic/probiotic treated and untreated control groups.

Community initiated kangaroo mother care and early child development in low birth weight infants in India-a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: In a randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 8402 stable low birthweight (LBW) infants, majority being late preterm or term small for gestational age, community-initiated KMC (ciKMC) showed a significant improvement in survival. However, the effect of ciKMC on neurodevelopment is unclear. This is important to elucidate as children born with low birth weight are at high risk of neurodevelopmental deficits. In the first 552 stable LBW infants enrolled in the above trial, we evaluated the effect of ciKMC on neurodevelopmental outcomes during infancy. METHOD: This RCT was conducted among 552 stable LBW infants, majorly late preterm or term small for gestational age infants without any problems at birth and weighing 1500-2250 g at birth. The intervention comprised of promotion of skin-to-skin contact and exclusive breastfeeding by trained intervention delivery team through home visits. The intervention group mother-infant-dyads were supported to practice ciKMC till day 28 after birth or until the baby wriggled-out. All infants in the intervention and control groups received Home Based Post Natal Care (HBPNC) visits by government health workers. Cognitive, language, motor and socio-emotional outcomes were assessed at infant-ages 6- and 12-months using Bayley Scale of Infant Development (BSID-III). Other outcomes measured were infant temperament, maternal depression, maternal sense of competence, mother-infant bonding and home-environment. We performed post-hoc equivalence testing using two one-sided tests of equivalence (TOST) to provide evidence that ciKMC does not do harm in terms of neurodevelopment. RESULTS: In the intervention arm, the median (IQR) time to initiate ciKMC was 48 (48 to 72) hours after birth. The mean (SD) duration of skin-to-skin-contact was 27.9 (3.9) days with a mean (SD) of 8.7 (3.5) hours per day. We did not find significant effect of ciKMC on any of the child developmental outcomes during infancy. The TOST analysis demonstrated that composite scores for cognitive, language and motor domains at 12 months among the study arms were statistically equivalent. CONCLUSION: Our study was unable to capture any effect of ciKMC on neurodevelopment during infancy in this sample of stable late preterm or term small for gestational age infants. Long term follow-up may provide meaningful insights. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov NCT02631343 dated February 17, 2016; Retrospectively registered.

Utilisation, equity and determinants of full antenatal care in India: analysis from the National Family Health Survey 4.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the utilisation, equity and determinants of full antenatal care (ANC), defined as 4 or more antenatal visits, at least one tetanus toxoid (TT) injection and consumption of iron folic acid (IFA) for a minimum of 100 days, in India. METHODS: We analysed a sample of 190,898 women from India's National Family Health Survey 4. Concentration curves and concentration index were used to assess equity in full ANC utilisation. Multivariable logistic regression model was used to examine the factors associated with full ANC utilisation. RESULTS: In India, 21% of pregnant women utilised full ANC, ranging from 2.3-65.9% across states. Overall, 51.6% had 4 or more ANC visits, 30.8% consumed IFA for atleast 100 days, and 91.1% had one or more doses of tetanus toxoid. Full ANC utilisation was inequitable across place of residence, caste and maternal education. Registration of pregnancy, utilisation of government's Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and health insurance coverage were associated with higher odds of full ANC utilisation. Lower maternal education, lower wealth quintile(s), lack of father's participation during antenatal visits, higher birth order, teenage and unintended pregnancy were associated with lower odds of full ANC utilisation. CONCLUSIONS: Full ANC utilisation in India was inadequate and inequitable. Although half of the women did not receive the minimum recommended ANC visits, the utilisation of TT immunisation was almost universal. The positive association of full ANC with ICDS utilisation and child's father involvement may be leveraged for increasing the uptake of full ANC. Strategies to address the socio-demographic factors associated with low and inequitable utilisation of full ANC are imperative for strengthening India's maternal health program.

Cognitive and motor outcomes in children born low birth weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies from South Asia.

BACKGROUND: South Asia contributes substantially to global low birth weight population (i.e. those with birth weight < 2500 g). Synthesized evidence is lacking on magnitude of cognitive and motor deficits in low birth weight (LBW) children compared to those with normal birth weight (NBW) (i.e. birth weight ≥ 2500 g). The meta-analysis aimed to generate this essential evidence. METHODS: Literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar. Original research articles from south Asia that compared cognitive and/or motor scores among LBW and NBW individuals were included. Weighted mean differences (WMD) and pooled relative risks (RR) were calculated. All analyses were done using STATA 14 software. RESULTS: Nineteen articles (n = 5999) were included in the analysis. Children < 10 years of age born LBW had lower cognitive (WMD -4.56; 95% CI: -6.38, - 2.74) and motor scores (WMD -4.16; 95% CI: -5.42, - 2.89) compared to children with NBW. Within LBW children, those with birth weight < 2000 g had much lower cognitive (WMD -7.23, 95% CI; - 9.20, - 5.26) and motor scores (WMD -6.45, 95% CI; - 9.64, - 3.27). CONCLUSIONS: In south Asia, children born LBW, especially with < 2000 g birth weight, have substantial cognitive and motor impairment compared to children with NBW. Early child development interventions should lay emphasis to children born LBW.

Meta-analysis of efficacy of iron and iodine fortified salt in improving iron nutrition status.

BACKGROUND: Salt fortification with iron is a potential strategy to increase population-level iron intake. The current evidence regarding double-fortified salt (DFS) in improving iron nutrition status is equivocal. OBJECTIVE: To study the efficacy of DFS as compared to iodine fortified salt (IS) in improving iron nutrition status. METHODS: Randomized controlled trials comparing DFS and IS until August 2016 were systematically searched across multiple databases to assess for change in mean hemoglobin (Hb), prevalence of anemia, iron deficiency (ID), ID anemia (IDA), serum ferritin, and serum transferrin receptor (TfR). Meta-analysis was performed using R software. RESULTS: Of the initial 215 articles retrieved using the predetermined search strategy, data from 10 comparisons of DFS and IS across 8 randomized controlled trials are included. There was significant heterogeneity across included studies and the studies were of low to very low quality as per GRADE criteria. DFS significantly increased mean Hb by 0.44 g/dl (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.16, 0.71) and significantly decreased anemia (risk difference -0.16; 95% CI: -0.26, -0.06) and ID (risk difference -0.20; 95% CI: -0.32, -0.08) as compared to IS. There was no statistically significant difference in change in ferritin levels (mean difference 0.62 µg/L; 95% CI: -0.12, 1.37), serum TfR levels (mean difference -0.23 mg/dL; 95% CI: -0.85, 0.38), and IDA (risk difference -0.08; 95% CI: -0.28, 0.11). CONCLUSION: DFS is a potentially efficacious strategy of addressing anemia as a public health problem at population level. There is a need for effectiveness trials before DFS can be scaled up in program mode at population level.

Kangaroo mother care: using formative research to design an acceptable community intervention.

BACKGROUND: Low and middle income countries (LMICs), including India, contribute to a major proportion of low birth weight (LBW) infants globally. These infants require special care. Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) in hospitals is a cost effective and efficacious intervention. In institutional deliveries, the duration of facility stay is often short. In LMICs, a substantial proportion of deliveries still occur at home and access to health care services is limited. In these circumstances, a pragmatic choice may be to initiate KMC at home for LBW babies. However, evidence is lacking on benefits of community-initiated KMC (cKMC). Promoting KMC at home without an understanding of its acceptability may lead to limited success. METHODS: We conducted formative research to assess the feasibility, acceptability and adoption of cKMC with the aim of designing an intervention package for a randomised controlled trial in LBW infants in Haryana, India. Qualitative methods included 40 in-depth interviews with recently delivered women and 6 focus group discussions, two each with fathers and grandfathers, grandmothers, and community health workers. A prototype intervention package to promote cKMC was developed and tested in 28 mother-infant pairs (of them, one mother had twins), using Household (HH) trials. RESULTS: We found that most mothers in the community recognized that babies born small required special care. In spite of not being aware of the practice of KMC, respondents felt that creating awareness of KMC benefits will promote practice. They expressed concerns about doing KMC for long periods because mothers needed rest after delivery. However, the cultural practice of recently delivered women not expected to be doing household chores and availability of other family members were identified as enablers. HH trials provided an opportunity to test the intervention package and showed high acceptability for KMC. Most mothers perceived benefits such as weight gain and increased activity in the infant. CONCLUSIONS: Community-initiated KMC is acceptable by mothers and adoption rates are high. Formative research is essential for developing a strategy for delivery of an intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Trial registration number CTRI/2015/10/006267 . Name of Registry: Clinical Trials Registry - India. URL of Registry: http://ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/login.php Date of Registration: 15/10/2015. Date of enrolment of the first participant to the trial: 18/04/2015.

Low-birthweight infants born to short-stature mothers are at additional risk of stunting and poor growth velocity: Evidence from secondary data analyses.

Low-birthweight (LBW) infants are at an increased risk of stunting and poor linear growth. The risk might be additionally higher in these infants when born to short mothers. However, this hypothesis has been less explored. The objective of this secondary data analysis was to determine the risk of linear growth faltering and difference in linear growth velocity in LBW infants born to short mothers (<150 cm) compared to those born to mothers with height ≥150 cm during the first year of life. This analysis uses data from a community-based randomized controlled trial of 2,052 hospital-born term infants with birthweight ≤2,500g from urban low-middle socioeconomic neighbourhoods in Delhi, India. Data on maternal height and infant birth length were available from 1,858 (90.5%) of the infants. Infant anthropometry outcomes were measured at birth, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age. We found that infants born to short mothers had around twofold higher odds of stunting and lower attained length-for-age Z scores compared to infants of mothers with height ≥150 cm, at all ages of assessment. Linear growth velocity was significantly lower in infants of short mothers particularly in the first 6 months of life. We conclude that LBW infants born to short mothers are at a higher risk of stunting and have slower postnatal growth velocity resulting in lower attained length-for-age Z scores in infancy. Evidence-based strategies need to be tested to optimize growth velocity in LBW infants especially those born to short mothers.

Postpartum depression in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an estimate of the burden of postpartum depression in Indian mothers and investigate some risk factors for the condition. METHODS: We searched PubMed®, Google Scholar and Embase® databases for articles published from year 2000 up to 31 March 2016 on the prevalence of postpartum depression in Indian mothers. The search used subject headings and keywords with no language restrictions. Quality was assessed via the Newcastle-Ottawa quality assessment scale. We performed the meta-analysis using a random effects model. Subgroup analysis and meta-regression was done for heterogeneity and the Egger test was used to assess publication bias. FINDINGS: Thirty-eight studies involving 20 043 women were analysed. Studies had a high degree of heterogeneity (I2 = 96.8%) and there was evidence of publication bias (Egger bias = 2.58; 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.83-4.33). The overall pooled estimate of the prevalence of postpartum depression was 22% (95% CI: 19-25). The pooled prevalence was 19% (95% CI: 17-22) when excluding 8 studies reporting postpartum depression within 2 weeks of delivery. Small, but non-significant differences in pooled prevalence were found by mother's age, geographical location and study setting. Reported risk factors for postpartum depression included financial difficulties, presence of domestic violence, past history of psychiatric illness in mother, marital conflict, lack of support from husband and birth of a female baby. CONCLUSION: The review shows a high prevalence of postpartum depression in Indian mothers. More resources need to be allocated for capacity-building in maternal mental health care in India.

Integrated Interventions Delivered in Health Systems, Home, and Community Have the Highest Impact on Breastfeeding Outcomes in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Background: Improving breastfeeding rates is critical. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), only subtle improvements in breastfeeding rates have been observed over the past decade, which highlights the need for accelerating breastfeeding promotion interventions.Objective: The objective of this article is to update evidence on the effect of interventions on early initiation of and exclusive (<1 and 1-5 mo) and continued (6-23 mo) breastfeeding rates in LMICs when delivered in health systems, in the home or in community environments, or in a combination of settings.Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Cochrane, and CABI databases to identify new articles relevant to our current review, which were published after the search date of our earlier meta-analysis (October 2014). Nine new articles were found to be relevant and were included, in addition to the other 52 studies that were identified in our earlier meta-analysis. We reported the pooled ORs and corresponding 95% CIs as our outcome estimates. In cases of high heterogeneity, random-effects models were used and causes were explored by subgroup analysis and meta-regression.Results: Early initiation of and exclusive (<1 and 1-5 mo) and continued (6-23 mo) breastfeeding rates in LMICs improved significantly as a result of interventions delivered in health systems, in the home or community, or a combination of these. Interventions delivered concurrently in a combination of settings were found to show the largest improvements in desired breastfeeding outcomes. Counseling provided in any setting and baby-friendly support in health systems appear to be the most effective interventions to improve breastfeeding.Conclusions: Improvements in breastfeeding practices are possible in LMICs with judicious use of tested interventions, particularly when delivered in a combination of settings concurrently. The findings can be considered for inclusion in the Lives Saved Tool model.

Estimating the burden of 'weighing less': A systematic review and meta-analysis of low birth-weight in India.

BACKGROUND: The National Family Health Survey-3 (NFHS- 3; 2005-06) reports that the prevalence of low birth-weight babies is 22% in India. This old figure is probably an underestimate as this nationwide survey acquired information on birth-weight of only 34% of babies. We aimed to make a fresh estimate of the proportion of low birth-weight babies. METHODS: A systematic search was done through PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, Medline, IndMed, Embase, WHO and Biomed Central databases. Studies published from 2004 to 2014 were included. Study quality was assessed using the adapted Mirza and Jenkins checklist. An 'adjustment' of 24% was applied to the published estimates where data were collected through records or through a combination of records and anthropometry. The adjustment was done to account for the heaping of birth-weight data at 2500 g. Metaanalysis using both random and fixed effects model was done to derive an estimate. RESULTS: Nineteen studies with 44 133 subjects were included in the review. The pooled estimate for the prevalence of low birth-weight was 27% (95% CI 24%-30%) and the 'adjusted' pooled prevalence was 31% (95% CI 28%-33%). The prevalence in urban and rural areas was 30% (95% CI 23%- 38%) and 26% (95% CI 22%-30%), respectively. Regionwise estimates revealed that the prevalence at 33% was comparatively higher in eastern regions (95% CI 29%-37%). CONCLUSION: The pooled prevalence of low birth-weight is higher than that reported by NFHS-3. Updated estimates should be used to guide future interventions and policies.

Childhood Experiences of Physical, Emotional and Sexual Abuse among College Students in South India.

OBJECTIVES: To document the prevalence of physical, emotional and sexual abuse during childhood among college students. METHODS: The study was conducted among college students of Puducherry, South India. Stratified random sampling was done to select colleges. Data were gathered using the adapted 'Ministry of Women and Child Development Questionnaire on Child Abuse for Young adults'. RESULTS: A total of 936 college students completed the questionnaire. Mean ± SD age of the participants was 19.2 ± 1.1 years. Half (48%) of the participants reported being mocked because of their physical appearance. In all, 56% (524/936) of the participants reported that they were beaten during their childhood, of which 13.4% (70/524) required medical treatment. Around 10% reported someone exposing his/her private parts to them, while in 6.4% of the cases, the perpetrator forced the study participants to expose their private parts. CONCLUSIONS: Emotional, physical and sexual abuse is common in childhood and demands prompt interventions at the familial, community and political levels.

Need to focus beyond the medical causes: a systematic review of the social factors affecting neonatal deaths.

BACKGROUND: Reducing the global total of 3.3 million neonatal deaths is crucial to meeting the fourth Millennium Development Goal. Until recently, attention has been on the medical causes of the neonatal deaths, while the social factors contextualising these deaths have largely remained unaddressed. The current review aimed to quantify the role of these factors in neonatal deaths. METHODS: A systematic search was performed through PubMed, Google scholar, Cochrane library, Medline, IndMed, Embase, World Health Organization and Biomed central databases. Studies published from 1995 to 2011 were included. Random effects meta-analysis was performed to derive at an estimate of the burden of delays, as defined by the 'three delays model' by Thadeus and Maine. RESULTS: A total of 17 studies were reviewed. The majority of them (n = 10) were from the African continent. Level 3 delay, i.e. delay in receiving appropriate treatment upon reaching a health facility (38.7%, 95% CI, 21.7%-57.3%) and delay in deciding to seek care for the illness (Level 1 delay) (28%, 95% CI, 16%-43%) were the major contributors to neonatal deaths. Level 2 delay, i.e. delay in reaching a health facility (18.3%, 95% CI, 2.6-43.8%) contributed least to the neonatal deaths. CONCLUSION: Creating awareness among caregivers regarding early recognition and treatment seeking for neonatal illness along with improving the quality of neonatal care provided at the health facilities is essential to reduce neonatal mortality.

The role of maternal diet and iron-folic acid supplements in influencing birth weight: evidence from India's National Family Health Survey.

AIM: To examine the role of maternal diet in determining low birth weight (LBW) in Indian infants. METHODS: Data from the National Family Health Survey (2005-06) were used. Multivariate regression analysis was used to analyse the effect of maternal diet on infant birth weight. RESULTS: Infants whose mothers consumed milk and curd daily [odds ratio (OR), 1.17; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.06-1.29]; fruits daily (OR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.07-1.36) or weekly (OR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.02-1.24) had higher odds of not having a low birth weight baby. The daily consumption of pulses and beans (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 1.02-1.36) increased the odds while weekly consumption of fish (OR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.70-0.89) decreased the odds of not having a LBW infant. Intake of iron-folic acid supplements during pregnancy increased birth weight by 6.46 g per month. CONCLUSION: Improved intake of micronutrient-rich foods can increase birth weight.

Impact of an integrated health, nutrition, and early child stimulation and responsive care intervention package delivered to preterm or term small for gestational age babies during infancy on growth and neurodevelopment: study protocol of an individually randomized controlled trial in India (Small Babies Trial).

BACKGROUND: Preterm and term small for gestational age (SGA) babies are at high risk of experiencing malnutrition and impaired neurodevelopment. Standalone interventions have modest and sometimes inconsistent effects on growth and neurodevelopment in these babies. For greater impact, intervention may be needed in multiple domains-health, nutrition, and psychosocial care and support. Therefore, the combined effects of an integrated intervention package for preterm and term SGA on growth and neurodevelopment are worth investigating. METHODS: An individually randomized controlled trial is being conducted in urban and peri-urban low to middle-socioeconomic neighborhoods in South Delhi, India. Infants are randomized (1:1) into two strata of 1300 preterm and 1300 term SGA infants each to receive the intervention package or routine care. Infants will be followed until 12 months of age. Outcome data will be collected by an independent outcome ascertainment team at infant ages 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months and at 2, 6, and 12 months after delivery for mothers. DISCUSSION: The findings of this study will indicate whether providing an intervention that addresses factors known to limit growth and neurodevelopment can offer substantial benefits to preterm or term SGA infants. The results from this study will increase our understanding of growth and development and guide the design of public health programs in low- and middle-income settings for vulnerable infants. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial has been registered prospectively in Clinical Trial Registry - India # CTRI/2021/11/037881, Registered on 08 November 2021.