The Prion-Like Spreading of Alpha-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease: Update on Models and Hypotheses.

The pathological aggregation of the presynaptic protein α-synuclein (α-syn) and propagation through synaptically coupled neuroanatomical tracts is increasingly thought to underlie the pathophysiological progression of Parkinson's disease (PD) and related synucleinopathies. Although the precise molecular mechanisms responsible for the spreading of pathological α-syn accumulation in the CNS are not fully understood, growing evidence suggests that de novo α-syn misfolding and/or neuronal internalization of aggregated α-syn facilitates conformational templating of endogenous α-syn monomers in a mechanism reminiscent of prions. A refined understanding of the biochemical and cellular factors mediating the pathological neuron-to-neuron propagation of misfolded α-syn will potentially elucidate the etiology of PD and unravel novel targets for therapeutic intervention. Here, we discuss recent developments on the hypothesis regarding trans-synaptic propagation of α-syn pathology in the context of neuronal vulnerability and highlight the potential utility of novel experimental models of synucleinopathies.

Discrepancies in quantitative assessment of normal and regenerated peripheral nerve fibers between light and electron microscopy.

Quantitative estimation of myelinated nerve fiber number, together with fiber size parameters, is one of the most important tools for nerve regeneration research. In this study we used a design-based stereological method to evaluate the regenerative process in two experimental paradigms: crush injury and autograft repair. Samples were embedded in resin and morphometric counting and measurements were performed using both light and electron microscopes. Results show a significant difference in myelinated fiber number estimation between light and electron microscopes, especially after autograft repair; light microscope significantly underestimates the number of fibers because of the large number of very small axons that can be detected only in electron microscope. The analysis of the size parameters also shows a higher number of small fibers in electron microscopic analysis, especially in regenerated nerves. This comparative study shows that the integration of data obtained in light microscope with those obtained in electron microscope is necessary in revealing very small myelinated fibers that cannot be detected otherwise. Moreover, the difference in the estimation of total number of myelinated fibers between light and electron microscopes must be considered in data analysis to ensure accurate interpretation of the results.

Recombinant adeno-associated virus mediated gene delivery in the extracranial nervous system of adult mice by direct nerve immersion.

This protocol outlines a minimally invasive and quickly performed approach for transgene delivery in the extracranial nervous system of adult mice using recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV). The technique, named Sciatic Nerve Direct Immersion (SciNDi), relies on the direct bilateral immersion of the exposed sciatic nerve with AAV. We show that in comparison with intramuscular AAV delivery, SciNDi results in widespread transduction in connected neuroanatomical tracts both in the sciatic nerve trunk and the lumbar spinal cord. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Jan et al. (2019) and Richner et al. (2011, 2017).

Comparative transcriptional analysis of satellite glial cell injury response.

Background: Satellite glial cells (SGCs) tightly surround and support primary sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system and are increasingly recognized for their involvement in the development of neuropathic pain following nerve injury. SGCs are difficult to investigate due to their flattened shape and tight physical connection to neurons in vivo and their rapid changes in phenotype and protein expression when cultured in vitro. Consequently, several aspects of SGC function under normal conditions as well as after a nerve injury remain to be explored. The recent advance in single cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) technologies has enabled a new approach to investigate SGCs. Methods: In this study we used scRNAseq to investigate SGCs from mice subjected to sciatic nerve injury. We used a meta-analysis approach to compare the injury response with that found in other published datasets.  Furthermore, we also used scRNAseq to investigate how cells from the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) change after 3 days in culture. Results: From our meta-analysis of the injured conditions, we find that SGCs share a common signature of 18 regulated genes following sciatic nerve crush or sciatic nerve ligation, involving transcriptional regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis. We also observed a considerable transcriptional change when culturing SGCs, suggesting that some differentiate into a specialised in vitro state while others start resembling Schwann cell-like precursors. Conclusion: By using integrated analyses of new and previously published scRNAseq datasets, this study provides a consensus view of which genes are most robustly changed in SGCs after injury. Our results are available via the Broad Institute Single Cell Portal, so that readers can explore and search for genes of interest.

Discrepancy in the Usage of GFAP as a Marker of Satellite Glial Cell Reactivity.

Satellite glial cells (SGCs) surrounding the neuronal somas in peripheral sensory ganglia are sensitive to neuronal stressors, which induce their reactive state. It is believed that such induced gliosis affects the signaling properties of the primary sensory neurons and is an important component of the neuropathic phenotype leading to pain and other sensory disturbances. Efforts to understand and manipulate such gliosis relies on reliable markers to confirm induced SGC reactivity and ultimately the efficacy of targeted intervention. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is currently the only widely used marker for such analyses. However, we have previously described the lack of SGC upregulation of GFAP in a mouse model of sciatic nerve injury, suggesting that GFAP may not be a universally suitable marker of SGC gliosis across species and experimental models. To further explore this, we here investigate the regulation of GFAP in two different experimental models in both rats and mice. We found that whereas GFAP was upregulated in both rodent species in the applied inflammation model, only the rat demonstrated increased GFAP in SGCs following sciatic nerve injury; we did not observe any such GFAP upregulation in the mouse model at either protein or mRNA levels. Our results demonstrate an important discrepancy between species and experimental models that prevents the usage of GFAP as a universal marker for SGC reactivity.

Trans-synaptic spreading of alpha-synuclein pathology through sensory afferents leads to sensory nerve degeneration and neuropathic pain.

Pain is a common non-motor symptom of Parkinson's disease (PD), with current limited knowledge of its pathophysiology. Here, we show that peripheral inoculation of mouse alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) pre-formed fibrils, in a transgenic mouse model of PD, elicited retrograde trans-synaptic spreading of α-Syn pathology (pSer129) across sensory neurons and dorsal nerve roots, reaching central pain processing regions, including the spinal dorsal horn and the projections of the anterolateral system in the central nervous system (CNS). Pathological peripheral to CNS propagation of α-Syn aggregates along interconnected neuronal populations within sensory afferents, was concomitant with impaired nociceptive response, reflected by mechanical allodynia, reduced nerve conduction velocities (sensory and motor) and degeneration of small- and medium-sized myelinated fibers. Our findings show a link between the transneuronal propagation of α-Syn pathology with sensory neuron dysfunction and neuropathic impairment, suggesting promising avenues of investigation into the mechanisms underlying pain in PD.

Calmodulin kinase II interacts with the dopamine transporter C terminus to regulate amphetamine-induced reverse transport.

Efflux of dopamine through the dopamine transporter (DAT) is critical for the psychostimulatory properties of amphetamines, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here we show that Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) plays a key role in this efflux. CaMKIIalpha bound to the distal C terminus of DAT and colocalized with DAT in dopaminergic neurons. CaMKIIalpha stimulated dopamine efflux via DAT in response to amphetamine in heterologous cells and in dopaminergic neurons. CaMKIIalpha phosphorylated serines in the distal N terminus of DAT in vitro, and mutation of these serines eliminated the stimulatory effects of CaMKIIalpha. A mutation of the DAT C terminus impairing CaMKIIalpha binding also impaired amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux. An in vivo role for CaMKII was supported by chronoamperometry measurements showing reduced amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux in response to the CaMKII inhibitor KN93. Our data suggest that CaMKIIalpha binding to the DAT C terminus facilitates phosphorylation of the DAT N terminus and mediates amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux.

Mature BDNF, but not proBDNF, reduces excitability of fast-spiking interneurons in mouse dentate gyrus.

Mature BDNF and its precursor proBDNF may both be secreted to exert opposite effects on synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. However, it is unknown how proBDNF and mature BDNF affect the excitability of GABAergic interneurons and thereby regulate GABAergic inhibition. We made recordings of GABAergic spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs) in mouse dentate gyrus granule cells and found that chronic or acute BDNF reductions led to large increases in the sIPSC frequencies, which were TTX (tetrodotoxin) sensitive and therefore action-potential driven. Conversely, addition of mature BDNF, but not proBDNF, within minutes led to a decrease in the sIPSC frequency to 44%. Direct recordings from fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons revealed that mature BDNF reduced their excitability and depressed their action potential firing, whereas proBDNF had no effect. Using the TrkB inhibitor K-252a, or mice deficient for the common neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR), the regulation of GABAergic activity was shown specifically to be mediated by BDNF binding to the neurotrophin receptor TrkB. In agreement, immunohistochemistry demonstrated that TrkB, but not p75(NTR), was expressed in parvalbumin-positive interneurons. Our results suggest that mature BDNF decreases the excitability of GABAergic interneurons via activation of TrkB, while proBDNF does not impact on GABAergic activity. Thus, by affecting the firing of GABAergic interneurons, mature BDNF may play an important role in regulating network oscillations in the hippocampus.

Visualization of dopamine transporter trafficking in live neurons by use of fluorescent cocaine analogs.

The dopamine transporter (DAT) mediates reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft and is a target for widely abused psychostimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine. Nonetheless, little is known about the cellular distribution and trafficking of natively expressed DAT. Here we use novel fluorescently tagged cocaine analogs to visualize DAT and DAT trafficking in cultured live midbrain dopaminergic neurons. The fluorescent tags were extended from the tropane N-position of 2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)tropane using an ethylamino-linker. The rhodamine-, OR Green-, or Cy3-labeled ligands had high binding affinity for DAT and enabled specific labeling of DAT in live neurons and visualization by confocal imaging. In the dopaminergic neurons, DAT was uniformly distributed in the plasma membrane of the soma, the neuronal extensions, and varicosities along these extensions. FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) experiments demonstrated bidirectional movement of DAT in the extensions and indicated that DAT is highly mobile both in the extensions and in the varicosities (immobile fraction less than approximately 30%). DAT was constitutively internalized into vesicular structures likely representing intracellular transporter pools. The internalization was blocked by lentiviral-mediated expression of dominant-negative dynamin and internalized DAT displayed partial colocalization with the early endosomal marker EGFP-Rab5 and with the transferrin receptor. DAT internalization and function was not affected by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) or by inhibition with staurosporine or GF109203X. These data are in contrast to findings for DAT in transfected heterologous cells and challenge the paradigm that trafficking and cellular distribution of endogenous DAT is subject to regulation by PKC.

Isolation of satellite glial cells for high-quality RNA purification.

BACKGROUND: Satellite glial cells (SGCs) envelope the neuronal somas in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and are believed to provide important neuronal support. Animal models of peripheral nerve injury, diabetes or chemotherapy all demonstrate activation of SGCs, suggesting important physiological roles for SGCs in various states of peripheral neuropathy. However, the biology of these glial cells is only poorly characterized under normal as well as pathological conditions due to suboptimal isolation methods. NEW METHOD: The method presented here allows complete dissociation and isolation of highly pure SGCs from rat DRGs by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) using SGC-specific antibodies. The method further allows purification of high-quality RNA from the fixed and permeabilized cells. RESULTS: The purified RNA shows very little degradation, demonstrated by RNA integrity number (RIN) analysis with an average value of 8. The purified RNA, therefore, lends itself very well to downstream applications such as qPCR and transcriptome analysis. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: Primary SGC cultures have previously been established for in vitro studies. Unfortunately, SGCs quickly change morphology and gene expression in vitro, complicating biologically meaningful interpretation of the obtained results. In contrast, this method allows the investigation of SGC gene regulation in vivo by isolation of high-quality RNA. CONCLUSIONS: This method enables investigation of SGC transcriptional response in vivo by isolation and analysis of mRNA expression, allowing a more detailed investigation of SGC biology under normal as well as pathological conditions.

Peripheral Glial Cells in the Development of Diabetic Neuropathy.

The global prevalence of diabetes is rapidly increasing, affecting more than half a billion individuals within the next few years. As diabetes negatively affects several physiological systems, this dramatic increase represents not only impaired quality of life on the individual level but also a huge socioeconomic challenge. One of the physiological consequences affecting up to half of diabetic patients is the progressive deterioration of the peripheral nervous system, resulting in spontaneous pain and eventually loss of sensory function, motor weakness, and organ dysfunctions. Despite intense research on the consequences of hyperglycemia on nerve functions, the biological mechanisms underlying diabetic neuropathy are still largely unknown, and treatment options lacking. Research has mainly focused directly on the neuronal component, presumably from the perspective that this is the functional signal-transmitting unit of the nerve. However, it is noteworthy that each single peripheral sensory neuron is intimately associated with numerous glial cells; the neuronal soma is completely enclosed by satellite glial cells and the length of the longest axons covered by at least 1,000 Schwann cells. The glial cells are vital for the neuron, but very little is still known about these cells in general and especially how they respond to diabetes in terms of altered neuronal support. We will discuss current knowledge of peripheral glial cells and argue that increased research in these cells is imperative for a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying diabetic neuropathy.

Cytokine-Like Factor 1, an Essential Facilitator of Cardiotrophin-Like Cytokine:Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor Receptor α Signaling and sorLA-Mediated Turnover.

Cardiotrophin-like cytokine:cytokine-like factor-1 (CLC:CLF-1) is a heterodimeric neurotropic cytokine that plays a crucial role during neuronal development. Mice lacking CLC:CLF-1 die soon after birth due to a suckling defect and show reduced numbers of motor neurons. Humans carrying mutations in CLC:CLF-1 develop similar disorders, known as Sohar-Crisponi or cold-induced sweating syndrome, and have a high risk of early death. It is well known that CLC binds the ciliary neurotrophic factor receptor α (CNTFRα) and is a prerequisite for signaling through the gp130/leukemia inhibitory factor receptor ß (LIFRß) heterodimer, whereas CLF-1 serves to promote the cellular release of CLC. However, the precise role of CLF-1 is unclear. Here, we report that CLF-1, based on its binding site for CLC and on two additional and independent sites for CNTFRα and sorLA, is a key player in CLC and CNTFRα signaling and turnover. The site for CNTFRα enables CLF-1 to promote CLC:CNTFRα complex formation and signaling. The second site establishes a link between the endocytic receptor sorLA and the tripartite CLC:CLF-1:CNTFRα complex and allows sorLA to downregulate the CNTFRα pool in stimulated cells. Finally, sorLA may bind and concentrate the tripartite soluble CLC:CLF-1:CNTFRα complex on cell membranes and thus facilitate its signaling through gp130/LIFRß.

The mouse median nerve experimental model in regenerative research.

Sciatic nerve crush injury in rat animal model is one of the most common experimental models used in regenerative research. However, the availability of transgenic mouse for nerve regeneration studies is constantly increasing and, therefore, the shift from rat model to mouse model is, in some cases, necessary. Moreover, since most of the human nerve lesions occur in the upper limb, it is also advantageous to shift from sciatic nerve to median nerve. In this study we described an experimental model which involves lesions of the median nerve in the mouse. Data showed that the finger flexor muscle contraction strength, assessed to evaluate the motor function recovery, and reached values not different from the control already 20 days after injury. The degree of nerve regeneration evaluated with stereological methods in light microscopy showed that, 25 days after injury, the number of regenerated myelinated fibers was comparable to the control, but they were smaller with a thinner myelin thickness. Stereological analysis made in electron microscopy confirmed these results, although the total number of fibers quantified was significantly higher compared to light microscopy analysis, due to the very small size of some fibers that can be detected only in electron microscopy.

Peripheral nerve injury modulates neurotrophin signaling in the peripheral and central nervous system.

Peripheral nerve injury disrupts the normal functions of sensory and motor neurons by damaging the integrity of axons and Schwann cells. In contrast to the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system possesses a considerable capacity for regrowth, but regeneration is far from complete and functional recovery rarely returns to pre-injury levels. During development, the peripheral nervous system strongly depends upon trophic stimulation for neuronal differentiation, growth and maturation. The perhaps most important group of trophic substances in this context is the neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4/5), which signal in a complex spatial and timely manner via the two structurally unrelated p75(NTR) and tropomyosin receptor kinase (TrkA, Trk-B and Trk-C) receptors. Damage to the adult peripheral nerves induces cellular mechanisms resembling those active during development, resulting in a rapid and robust increase in the synthesis of neurotrophins in neurons and Schwann cells, guiding and supporting regeneration. Furthermore, the injury induces neurotrophin-mediated changes in the dorsal root ganglia and in the spinal cord, which affect the modulation of afferent sensory signaling and eventually may contribute to the development of neuropathic pain. The focus of this review is on the expression patterns of neurotrophins and their receptors in neurons and glial cells of the peripheral nervous system and the spinal cord. Furthermore, injury-induced changes of expression patterns and the functional consequences in relation to axonal growth and remyelination as well as to neuropathic pain development will be reviewed.

Sortilin and SorLA regulate neuronal sorting of trophic and dementia-linked proteins.

Sortilin and SorLA are members of the Vps10p domain receptor family, the Sortilins, which comprise five type I transmembrane receptors differentially expressed in neuronal tissues of the central and peripheral nervous system. Since the identification of sortilin in 1997, members of this receptor family are recognized as sorting receptors primarily in the trans-Golgi network, interacting with a wide range of ligands comprising other transmembrane receptors as well as soluble proteins from neurotrophic factors to enzymes targeted for lysosomes. Specifically, the involvement of sortilin in neutrophin signaling in healthy and injured neurons is increasingly recognized, as well as the impact of SorLA on the cellular processing of amyloid precursor protein, an important component in Alzheimer's disease. The current understanding of these issues as well as the recent recognition of a molecular link between sortilin and frontotemporal dementia is addressed in this present review.

Membrane mobility and microdomain association of the dopamine transporter studied with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching.

To investigate microdomain association of the dopamine transporter (DAT), we employed FCS (fluorescence correlation spectroscopy) and FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching). In non-neuronal cells (HEK293), FCS measurements revealed for the YFP-DAT (DAT tagged with yellow fluorescent protein) a diffusion coefficient (D) of approximately 3.6 x 10(-9) cm2/s, consistent with a relatively freely diffusible protein. In neuronally derived cells (N2a), we were unable to perform FCS measurements on plasma membrane-associated protein due to photobleaching, suggesting partial immobilization. This was supported by FRAP measurements that revealed a lower D and a mobile fraction of the YFP-DAT in N2a cells compared to HEK293 cells. Comparison with the EGFP-EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) and the EGFP-beta2AR (beta2 adrenergic receptor) demonstrated that this observation was DAT specific. Both the cytoskeleton-disrupting agent cytochalasin D and the cholesterol-depleting agent methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (mbetaCD) increased the lateral mobility of the YFP-DAT but not that of the EGFP-EGFR. The DAT associated in part with membrane raft markers both in the N2a cells and in rat striatal synaptosomes as assessed by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Raft association was further confirmed in the N2a cells by cholera toxin B patching. It was, moreover, observed that cholesterol depletion, and thereby membrane raft disruption, decreased both the Vmax and KM values for [3H]dopamine uptake without altering DAT surface expression. In summary, we propose that association of the DAT with lipid microdomains in the plasma membrane and/or the cytoskeleton serves to regulate both the lateral mobility of the transporter and its transport capacity.