Extreme elevational migration spurred cryptic speciation in giant hummingbirds.

The ecoevolutionary drivers of species niche expansion or contraction are critical for biodiversity but challenging to infer. Niche expansion may be promoted by local adaptation or constrained by physiological performance trade-offs. For birds, evolutionary shifts in migratory behavior permit the broadening of the climatic niche by expansion into varied, seasonal environments. Broader niches can be short-lived if diversifying selection and geography promote speciation and niche subdivision across climatic gradients. To illuminate niche breadth dynamics, we can ask how "outlier" species defy constraints. Of the 363 hummingbird species, the giant hummingbird (Patagona gigas) has the broadest climatic niche by a large margin. To test the roles of migratory behavior, performance trade-offs, and genetic structure in maintaining its exceptional niche breadth, we studied its movements, respiratory traits, and population genomics. Satellite and light-level geolocator tracks revealed an >8,300-km loop migration over the Central Andean Plateau. This migration included a 3-wk, ~4,100-m ascent punctuated by upward bursts and pauses, resembling the acclimatization routines of human mountain climbers, and accompanied by surging blood-hemoglobin concentrations. Extreme migration was accompanied by deep genomic divergence from high-elevation resident populations, with decisive postzygotic barriers to gene flow. The two forms occur side-by-side but differ almost imperceptibly in size, plumage, and respiratory traits. The high-elevation resident taxon is the world's largest hummingbird, a previously undiscovered species that we describe and name here. The giant hummingbirds demonstrate evolutionary limits on niche breadth: when the ancestral niche expanded due to evolution (or loss) of an extreme migratory behavior, speciation followed.

Contrasting drivers of diversity in hosts and parasites across the tropical Andes.

Geographic turnover in community composition is created and maintained by eco-evolutionary forces that limit the ranges of species. One such force may be antagonistic interactions among hosts and parasites, but its general importance is unknown. Understanding the processes that underpin turnover requires distinguishing the contributions of key abiotic and biotic drivers over a range of spatial and temporal scales. Here, we address these challenges using flexible, nonlinear models to identify the factors that underlie richness (alpha diversity) and turnover (beta diversity) patterns of interacting host and parasite communities in a global biodiversity hot spot. We sampled 18 communities in the Peruvian Andes, encompassing ∼1,350 bird species and ∼400 hemosporidian parasite lineages, and spanning broad ranges of elevation, climate, primary productivity, and species richness. Turnover in both parasite and host communities was most strongly predicted by variation in precipitation, but secondary predictors differed between parasites and hosts, and between contemporary and phylogenetic timescales. Host communities shaped parasite diversity patterns, but there was little evidence for reciprocal effects. The results for parasite communities contradicted the prevailing view that biotic interactions filter communities at local scales while environmental filtering and dispersal barriers shape regional communities. Rather, subtle differences in precipitation had strong, fine-scale effects on parasite turnover while host-community effects only manifested at broad scales. We used these models to map bird and parasite turnover onto the ecological gradients of the Andean landscape, illustrating beta-diversity hot spots and their mechanistic underpinnings.

The structure and organisation of an Amazonian bird community remains little changed after nearly four decades in Manu National Park.

Documenting patterns of spatiotemporal change in hyper-diverse communities remains a challenge for tropical ecology yet is increasingly urgent as some long-term studies have shown major declines in bird communities in undisturbed sites. In 1982, Terborgh et al. quantified the structure and organisation of the bird community in a 97-ha. plot in southeastern Peru. We revisited the same plot in 2018 using the same methodologies as the original study to evaluate community-wide changes. Contrary to longitudinal studies of other neotropical bird communities (Tiputini, Manaus, and Panama), we found little change in community structure and organisation, with increases in 5, decreases in 2 and no change in 7 foraging guilds. This apparent stability suggests that large forest reserves such as the Manu National Park, possibly due to regional topographical influences on precipitation, still provide the conditions for establishing refugia from at least some of the effects of global change on bird communities.

Blood Variation Implicates Respiratory Limits on Elevational Ranges of Andean Birds.

AbstractThe extent to which species ranges reflect intrinsic physiological tolerances is a major question in evolutionary ecology. To date, consensus has been hindered by the limited tractability of experimental approaches across most of the tree of life. Here, we apply a macrophysiological approach to understand how hematological traits related to oxygen transport shape elevational ranges in a tropical biodiversity hot spot. Along Andean elevational gradients, we measured traits that affect blood oxygen-carrying capacity-total and cellular hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit, the volume percentage of red blood cells-for 2,355 individuals of 136 bird species. We used these data to evaluate the influence of hematological traits on elevational ranges. First, we asked whether the sensitivity of hematological traits to changes in elevation is predictive of elevational range breadth. Second, we asked whether variance in hematological traits changed as a function of distance to the nearest elevational range limit. We found that birds showing greater hematological sensitivity had broader elevational ranges, consistent with the idea that a greater acclimatization capacity facilitates elevational range expansion. We further found reduced variation in hematological traits in birds sampled near their elevational range limits and at high absolute elevations, patterns consistent with intensified natural selection, reduced effective population size, or compensatory changes in other cardiorespiratory traits. Our findings suggest that constraints on hematological sensitivity and local genetic adaptation to oxygen availability promote the evolution of the narrow elevational ranges that underpin tropical montane biodiversity.

Adaptive introgression of the beta-globin cluster in two Andean waterfowl.

Introgression of beneficial alleles has emerged as an important avenue for genetic adaptation in both plant and animal populations. In vertebrates, adaptation to hypoxic high-altitude environments involves the coordination of multiple molecular and cellular mechanisms, including selection on the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) pathway and the blood-O2 transport protein hemoglobin (Hb). In two Andean duck species, a striking DNA sequence similarity reflecting identity by descent is present across the ~20 kb ß-globin cluster including both embryonic (HBE) and adult (HBB) paralogs, though it was yet untested whether this is due to independent parallel evolution or adaptive introgression. In this study, we find that identical amino acid substitutions in the ß-globin cluster that increase Hb-O2 affinity have likely resulted from historical interbreeding between high-altitude populations of two different distantly-related species. We examined the direction of introgression and discovered that the species with a deeper mtDNA divergence that colonized high altitude earlier in history (Anas flavirostris) transferred adaptive genetic variation to the species with a shallower divergence (A. georgica) that likely colonized high altitude more recently possibly following a range shift into a novel environment. As a consequence, the species that received these ß-globin variants through hybridization might have adapted to hypoxic conditions in the high-altitude environment more quickly through acquiring beneficial alleles from the standing, hybrid-origin variation, leading to faster evolution.

Deeply conserved susceptibility in a multi-host, multi-parasite system.

Variation in susceptibility is ubiquitous in multi-host, multi-parasite assemblages, and can have profound implications for ecology and evolution in these systems. The extent to which susceptibility to parasites is phylogenetically conserved among hosts can be revealed by analysing diverse regional communities. We screened for haemosporidian parasites in 3983 birds representing 40 families and 523 species, spanning ~ 4500 m elevation in the tropical Andes. To quantify the influence of host phylogeny on infection status, we applied Bayesian phylogenetic multilevel models that included a suite of environmental, spatial, temporal, life history and ecological predictors. We found evidence of deeply conserved susceptibility across the avian tree; host phylogeny explained substantial variation in infection status, and results were robust to phylogenetic uncertainty. Our study suggests that susceptibility is governed, in part, by conserved, latent aspects of anti-parasite defence. This demonstrates the importance of deep phylogeny for understanding present-day ecological interactions.

Implications of headwater contact zones for the riverine barrier hypothesis: a case study of the Blue-capped Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata).

Rivers frequently delimit the geographic ranges of species in the Amazon Basin. These rivers also define the boundaries between genetic clusters within many species, yet river boundaries have been documented to break down in headwater regions where rivers are narrower. To explore the evolutionary implications of headwater contact zones in Amazonia, we examined genetic variation in the Blue-capped Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata), a species previously shown to contain several genetically and phenotypically distinct populations across the western Amazon Basin. We collected restriction site-associated DNA sequence data (RADcap) for 706 individuals and found that spatial patterns of genetic structure indicate several rivers, particularly the Amazon and Ucayali, are dispersal barriers for L. coronata. We also found evidence that genetic connectivity is elevated across several headwater regions, highlighting the importance of headwater gene flow for models of Amazonian diversification. The headwater region of the Ucayali River provided a notable exception to findings of headwater gene flow by harboring non-admixed populations of L. coronata on opposite sides of a < 1-km-wide river channel with a known dynamic history, suggesting that additional prezygotic barriers may be limiting gene flow in this region.

Multilocus coalescent analysis of haemoglobin differentiation between low- and high-altitude populations of crested ducks (Lophonetta specularioides).

Hypoxia is a key factor determining survival, and haemoglobins are targets of selection in species native to high-altitude regions. We studied population genetic structure and evaluated evidence for local adaptation in the crested duck (Lophonetta specularioides). Differentiation, gene flow and time since divergence between highland and lowland populations were assessed for three haemoglobin genes (α(A) , α(D) , ß(A) ) and compared to seven reference loci (six autosomal introns and mtDNA). Four derived amino acid replacements were found in the globin genes that had elevated Φ(ST) values between the Andean highlands and Patagonian lowlands. A single ß(A) -globin polymorphism at a site known to influence O(2) affinity was fixed for different alleles in the two populations, whereas three α(A) - and α(D) -globin polymorphisms exhibited high heterozygosity in the highlands but not in the lowlands. Coalescent analyses supported restricted gene flow for haemoglobin alleles and mitochondrial DNA but nonzero gene flow for the introns. Simulating genetic data under a drift-migration model of selective neutrality, the ß(A) -globin fell outside the 95% confidence limit of simulated data, suggesting that directional selection is maintaining different variants in the contrasting elevational environments, thereby restricting migration of ß(A) -globin alleles. The α(A) - and α(D) -globins, by contrast, did not differ from the simulated values, suggesting that variants in these genes are either selectively neutral, or that the effects of selection could not be differentiated from background levels of population structure and linkage disequilibrium. This study illustrates the combined effects of selection and population history on inferring levels of population divergence for a species distributed across an altitudinal gradient in which selection for hypoxia resistance has likely played an important role.

Gene flow in the face of countervailing selection: adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia in the betaA hemoglobin subunit of yellow-billed pintails in the Andes.

When populations become locally adapted to contrasting environments, alleles that have high fitness in only one environment may be quickly eliminated in populations adapted to other environments, such that gene flow is partly restricted. The stronger the selection, the more rapidly immigrant alleles of lower fitness will be eliminated from the population. However, gene flow may continue to occur at unlinked loci, and adaptive divergence can proceed in the face of countervailing gene flow if selection is strong relative to migration (s > m). We studied the population genetics of the major hemoglobin genes in yellow-billed pintails (Anas georgica) experiencing contrasting partial pressures of oxygen in the Andes of South America. High gene flow and weak population subdivision were evident at seven putatively neutral loci in different chromosomal linkage groups. In contrast, amino acid replacements (Ser-beta13, Ser-beta116, and Met-beta133) in the betaA hemoglobin subunit segregated by elevation between lowland and highland populations with significantly elevated F(ST). Migration rates for the betaA subunit alleles were approximately 17-24 times smaller than for five unlinked reference loci, the alphaA hemoglobin subunit (which lacks amino acid replacements) and the mitochondrial DNA control region. The betaA subunit alleles of yellow-billed pintails were half as likely to be transferred downslope, from the highlands to the lowlands, than in the opposite direction upslope. We hypothesize that migration between the lowlands and highlands is restricted by local adaptation, and the betaA hemoglobin subunit is a likely target of selection related to high-altitude hypoxia; however, gene flow may be sufficiently high to retard divergence at most unlinked loci. Individuals homozygous for lowland alleles may have relatively little difficulty dispersing to the highlands initially but may experience long-term fitness reduction. Individuals homozygous for highland genotypes, in contrast, would be predicted to have difficulty dispersing to the lowlands if their hemoglobin alleles confer high oxygen affinity, predicted to result in chronic erythrocytosis at low elevation. Heterozygous individuals may have a dispersal advantage if their hemoglobin has a wider range of function due to the presence of multiple protein isoforms with a mixture of different oxygen affinities.

Signatures of high-altitude adaptation in the major hemoglobin of five species of andean dabbling ducks.

Hypoxia is one of the most important factors affecting survival at high altitude, and the major hemoglobin protein is a likely target of selection. We compared population genetic structure in the alphaA and betaA hemoglobin subunits (HBA2 and HBB) of five paired lowland and highland populations of Andean dabbling ducks to unlinked reference loci. In the hemoglobin genes, parallel amino acid replacements were overrepresented in highland lineages, and one to five derived substitutions occurred at external solvent-accessible positions on the alpha and beta subunits, at alpha(1)beta(1) intersubunit contacts, or in close proximity to inositolpentaphosphate (IPP) binding sites. Coalescent analyses incorporating the stochasticity of drift and mutation indicated that hemoglobin alleles were less likely to be transferred between highland and lowland populations than unlinked alleles at five other loci. Amino acid replacements that were overrepresented in the highlands were rarely found within lowland populations, suggesting that alleles segregating at high frequency in the highlands may be maladaptive in the lowlands and vice versa. Most highland populations are probably nonmigratory and locally adapted to the Altiplano, but gene flow for several species may be sufficiently high to retard divergence at unlinked loci. Heterozygosity was elevated in the alphaA or betaA subunits of highland populations exhibiting high gene flow between the southern lowlands and the highlands and in highland species that disperse seasonally downslope to midelevation environments from the central Andean plateau. However, elevated heterozygosity occurred more frequently in the alphaA subunit but not simultaneously in both subunits, suggesting that selection may be more constrained by epistasis in the betaA subunit. Concordant patterns among multiple species with different evolutionary histories and depths of historical divergence and gene flow suggest that the major hemoglobin genes of these five dabbling duck species have evolved adaptively in response to high-altitude hypoxia in the Andes.

Sobre la importancia de la certificación internacional para los anilladores de aves en Perú / About international certification importance for Bird Banders in Peru

La certificación como anillador de aves consiste en validar el nivel de conocimiento y experiencia de personas frente a un estándar consolidado de trabajo en el ejercicio de la captura, anillado, manejo, y liberación de aves, con el fin de promover la seguridad del ave, la seguridad del anillador y la calidad de los datos colectados. El Consejo Norteamericano de Anillado (NABC) es una organización sin fines de lucro, engloba a diversas organizaciones de investigación, conservación y gestión de la avifauna en Norteamérica. Continuando con su principal misión de promover prácticas responsables de la técnica del anillado de aves bajo criterios estandarizados y éticos, en un trabajo conjunto con el Centro de Ornitología y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI) y otras instituciones afines, entre el 2017 y el 2018 se han desarrollado las tres primeras sesiones de certificación NABC en el Perú. El presente trabajo intenta responder algunas de las preguntas más frecuentes relacionados con estas sesiones de certificación, así como los esfuerzos del anillado de aves promovidos por el Programa de Anillamiento CORBIDI (PAC).

Certification as bird bander implies to validate the level of knowledge and experience of people with regard to a consolidated standard of work in the exercise of capture, banding, handling, and release of birds, in order to promote the safety of the bird, the security of the bander and the quality of the data collected. The North American Banding Council (NABC) is a non-profit organization that includes diverse organizations of research, conservation and management of North American avifauna. Continuing with its mission to promote responsible bird-banding practices under standardized and ethical criteria, in a joint effort with the Centro de Ornitologia y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI) and other related institutions, the first three NABC certification sessions were recently held in Peru. This work tries to answer some of the most frequent questions related to these certification events and the bird banding efforts promoted by the Programa de Anillamiento CORBIDI (PAC).

Distribution of the Peruvian Plantcutter Phytotoma raimondii (Passeriformes: Cotingidae)

The Peruvian Plantcutter, Phytotoma raimondii Taczanowski, 1883, is a restricted-range species endemic to coastal northern Peru. Historically its range is given from Tumbes in the extreme north-western Peru, south to the northern part of Lima Department. Although an increasing amount of information on the Peruvian Plantcutter exists, from historical records to new locations, it has remained dispersed, sometimes unverified, not systematized, and largely unpublished. A careful revision of museum collections as well as published and unpublished records results in a total of 53 sites where the species has been recorded and that represent the present knowledge of the distribution of the species.

La cortarrama peruana, Phytotoma raimondii Taczanowski, 1883, es una especie endémica y de distribución restringida a la costa norte del Perú. Históricamente su rango ha sido considerado desde Tumbes en el extremo noroeste del Perú y hacia el sur hasta la parte norte del Departamento de Lima. Aunque existe mayor cantidad de información sobre la cortarrama peruana, entre registros históricos y localidades nuevas, esta información ha permanecido dispersa, a veces no verificada, no sistematizada y consecuentemente no publicada. Una revisión meticulosa de ejemplares de museos así como de registros publicados y no publicados da como resultado un total de 53 localidades donde la especie ha sido registrada y que representan el conocimiento actual de su distribución.