The TPLATE adaptor complex drives clathrin-mediated endocytosis in plants.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the major mechanism for eukaryotic plasma membrane-based proteome turn-over. In plants, clathrin-mediated endocytosis is essential for physiology and development, but the identification and organization of the machinery operating this process remains largely obscure. Here, we identified an eight-core-component protein complex, the TPLATE complex, essential for plant growth via its role as major adaptor module for clathrin-mediated endocytosis. This complex consists of evolutionarily unique proteins that associate closely with core endocytic elements. The TPLATE complex is recruited as dynamic foci at the plasma membrane preceding recruitment of adaptor protein complex 2, clathrin, and dynamin-related proteins. Reduced function of different complex components severely impaired internalization of assorted endocytic cargoes, demonstrating its pivotal role in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Taken together, the TPLATE complex is an early endocytic module representing a unique evolutionary plant adaptation of the canonical eukaryotic pathway for clathrin-mediated endocytosis.

Phase separation-based visualization of protein-protein interactions and kinase activities in plants.

Protein activities depend heavily on protein complex formation and dynamic posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation. The dynamic nature of protein complex formation and posttranslational modifications is notoriously difficult to monitor in planta at cellular resolution, often requiring extensive optimization. Here, we generated and exploited the SYnthetic Multivalency in PLants (SYMPL)-vector set to assay protein-protein interactions (PPIs) (separation of phases-based protein interaction reporter) and kinase activities (separation of phases-based activity reporter of kinase) in planta, based on phase separation. This technology enabled easy detection of inducible, binary and ternary PPIs among cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins in plant cells via a robust image-based readout. Moreover, we applied the SYMPL toolbox to develop an in vivo reporter for SNF1-related kinase 1 activity, allowing us to visualize tissue-specific, dynamic SnRK1 activity in stable transgenic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants. The SYMPL cloning toolbox provides a means to explore PPIs, phosphorylation, and other posttranslational modifications with unprecedented ease and sensitivity.

A Nitrogen-specific Interactome Analysis Sheds Light on the Role of the SnRK1 and TOR Kinases in Plant Nitrogen Signaling.

Nitrogen (N) is of utmost importance for plant growth and development. Multiple studies have shown that N signaling is tightly coupled with carbon (C) levels, but the interplay between C/N metabolism and growth remains largely an enigma. Nonetheless, the protein kinases Sucrose Non-fermenting 1 (SNF1)-Related Kinase 1 (SnRK1) and Target Of Rapamycin (TOR), two ancient central metabolic regulators, are emerging as key integrators that link C/N status with growth. Despite their pivotal importance, the exact mechanisms behind the sensing of N status and its integration with C availability to drive metabolic decisions are largely unknown. Especially for SnRK1, it is not clear how this kinase responds to altered N levels. Therefore, we first monitored N-dependent SnRK1 kinase activity with an in vivo Separation of Phase-based Activity Reporter of Kinase (SPARK) sensor, revealing a contrasting N-dependency in Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) shoot and root tissues. Next, using affinity purification (AP) and proximity labeling (PL) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) experiments, we constructed a comprehensive SnRK1 and TOR interactome in Arabidopsis cell cultures during N-starved and N-repleted growth conditions. To broaden our understanding of the N-specificity of the TOR/SnRK1 signaling events, the resulting network was compared to corresponding C-related networks, identifying a large number of novel, N-specific interactors. Moreover, through integration of N-dependent transcriptome and phosphoproteome data, we were able to pinpoint additional N-dependent network components, highlighting for instance SnRK1 regulatory proteins that might function at the crosstalk of C/N signaling. Finally, confirmation of known and identification of novel SnRK1 interactors, such as Inositol-Requiring 1 (IRE1A) and the RAB GTPase RAB18, indicate that SnRK1, present at the ER, is involved in N signaling and autophagy induction.

Ectopic application of the repressive histone modification H3K9me2 establishes post-zygotic reproductive isolation in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Hybrid seed lethality as a consequence of interspecies or interploidy hybridizations is a major mechanism of reproductive isolation in plants. This mechanism is manifested in the endosperm, a dosage-sensitive tissue supporting embryo growth. Deregulated expression of imprinted genes such as ADMETOS (ADM) underpin the interploidy hybridization barrier in Arabidopsis thaliana; however, the mechanisms of their action remained unknown. In this study, we show that ADM interacts with the AT hook domain protein AHL10 and the SET domain-containing SU(VAR)3-9 homolog SUVH9 and ectopically recruits the heterochromatic mark H3K9me2 to AT-rich transposable elements (TEs), causing deregulated expression of neighboring genes. Several hybrid incompatibility genes identified in Drosophila encode for dosage-sensitive heterochromatin-interacting proteins, which has led to the suggestion that hybrid incompatibilities evolve as a consequence of interspecies divergence of selfish DNA elements and their regulation. Our data show that imbalance of dosage-sensitive chromatin regulators underpins the barrier to interploidy hybridization in Arabidopsis, suggesting that reproductive isolation as a consequence of epigenetic regulation of TEs is a conserved feature in animals and plants.

Histone 2B monoubiquitination complex integrates transcript elongation with RNA processing at circadian clock and flowering regulators.

HISTONE MONOUBIQUITINATION1 (HUB1) and its paralog HUB2 act in a conserved heterotetrameric complex in the chromatin-mediated transcriptional modulation of developmental programs, such as flowering time, dormancy, and the circadian clock. The KHD1 and SPEN3 proteins were identified as interactors of the HUB1 and HUB2 proteins with in vitro RNA-binding activity. Mutants in SPEN3 and KHD1 had reduced rosette and leaf areas. Strikingly, in spen3 mutants, the flowering time was slightly, but significantly, delayed, as opposed to the early flowering time in the hub1-4 mutant. The mutant phenotypes in biomass and flowering time suggested a deregulation of their respective regulatory genes CIRCADIAN CLOCK-ASSOCIATED1 (CCA1) and FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) that are known targets of the HUB1-mediated histone H2B monoubiquitination (H2Bub). Indeed, in the spen3-1 and hub1-4 mutants, the circadian clock period was shortened as observed by luciferase reporter assays, the levels of the CCA1α and CCA1ß splice forms were altered, and the CCA1 expression and H2Bub levels were reduced. In the spen3-1 mutant, the delay in flowering time was correlated with an enhanced FLC expression, possibly due to an increased distal versus proximal ratio of its antisense COOLAIR transcript. Together with transcriptomic and double-mutant analyses, our data revealed that the HUB1 interaction with SPEN3 links H2Bub during transcript elongation with pre-mRNA processing at CCA1 Furthermore, the presence of an intact HUB1 at the FLC is required for SPEN3 function in the formation of the FLC-derived antisense COOLAIR transcripts.

SnRK2 Protein Kinases and mRNA Decapping Machinery Control Root Development and Response to Salt.

SNF1-RELATED PROTEIN KINASES 2 (SnRK2) are important components of early osmotic and salt stress signaling pathways in plants. The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) SnRK2 family comprises the abscisic acid (ABA)-activated protein kinases SnRK2.2, SnRK2.3, SnRK2.6, SnRK2.7, and SnRK2.8, and the ABA-independent subclass 1 protein kinases SnRK2.1, SnRK2.4, SnRK2.5, SnRK2.9, and SnRK2.10. ABA-independent SnRK2s act at the posttranscriptional level via phosphorylation of VARICOSE (VCS), a member of the mRNA decapping complex, that catalyzes the first step of 5'mRNA decay. Here, we identified VCS and VARICOSE RELATED (VCR) as interactors and phosphorylation targets of SnRK2.5, SnRK2.6, and SnRK2.10. All three protein kinases phosphorylated Ser-645 and Ser-1156 of VCS, whereas SnRK2.6 and SnRK2.10 also phosphorylated VCS Ser-692 and Ser-680 of VCR. We showed that subclass 1 SnRK2s, VCS, and 5' EXORIBONUCLEASE 4 (XRN4) are involved in regulating root growth under control conditions as well as modulating root system architecture in response to salt stress. Our results suggest interesting patterns of redundancy within subclass 1 SnRK2 protein kinases, with SnRK2.1, SnRK2.5, and SnRK2.9 controlling root growth under nonstress conditions and SnRK2.4 and SnRK2.10 acting mostly in response to salinity. We propose that subclass 1 SnRK2s function in root development under salt stress by affecting the transcript levels of aquaporins, as well as CYP79B2, an enzyme involved in auxin biosynthesis.

GSyellow, a Multifaceted Tag for Functional Protein Analysis in Monocot and Dicot Plants.

The ability to tag proteins has boosted the emergence of generic molecular methods for protein functional analysis. Fluorescent protein tags are used to visualize protein localization, and affinity tags enable the mapping of molecular interactions by, for example, tandem affinity purification or chromatin immunoprecipitation. To apply these widely used molecular techniques on a single transgenic plant line, we developed a multifunctional tandem affinity purification tag, named GSyellow, which combines the streptavidin-binding peptide tag with citrine yellow fluorescent protein. We demonstrated the versatility of the GSyellow tag in the dicot Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) using a set of benchmark proteins. For proof of concept in monocots, we assessed the localization and dynamic interaction profile of the leaf growth regulator ANGUSTIFOLIA3 (AN3), fused to the GSyellow tag, along the growth zone of the maize (Zea mays) leaf. To further explore the function of ZmAN3, we mapped its DNA-binding landscape in the growth zone of the maize leaf through chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing. Comparison with AN3 target genes mapped in the developing maize tassel or in Arabidopsis cell cultures revealed strong conservation of AN3 target genes between different maize tissues and across monocots and dicots, respectively. In conclusion, the GSyellow tag offers a powerful molecular tool for distinct types of protein functional analyses in dicots and monocots. As this approach involves transforming a single construct, it is likely to accelerate both basic and translational plant research.

PP2A-3 interacts with ACR4 and regulates formative cell division in the Arabidopsis root.

In plants, the generation of new cell types and tissues depends on coordinated and oriented formative cell divisions. The plasma membrane-localized receptor kinase ARABIDOPSIS CRINKLY 4 (ACR4) is part of a mechanism controlling formative cell divisions in the Arabidopsis root. Despite its important role in plant development, very little is known about the molecular mechanism with which ACR4 is affiliated and its network of interactions. Here, we used various complementary proteomic approaches to identify ACR4-interacting protein candidates that are likely regulators of formative cell divisions and that could pave the way to unraveling the molecular basis behind ACR4-mediated signaling. We identified PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE 2A-3 (PP2A-3), a catalytic subunit of PP2A holoenzymes, as a previously unidentified regulator of formative cell divisions and as one of the first described substrates of ACR4. Our in vitro data argue for the existence of a tight posttranslational regulation in the associated biochemical network through reciprocal regulation between ACR4 and PP2A-3 at the phosphorylation level.

The mutation nrpb1-A325V in the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II suppresses compromised growth of Arabidopsis plants deficient in a function of the general transcription factor IIF.

The evolutionarily conserved 12-subunit RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is a central catalytic component that drives RNA synthesis during the transcription cycle that consists of transcription initiation, elongation, and termination. A diverse set of general transcription factors, including a multifunctional TFIIF, govern Pol II selectivity, kinetic properties, and transcription coupling with posttranscriptional processes. Here, we show that TFIIF of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) resembles the metazoan complex that is composed of the TFIIFα and TFIIFß polypeptides. Arabidopsis has two TFIIFß subunits, of which TFIIFß1/MAN1 is essential and TFIIFß2/MAN2 is not. In the partial loss-of-function mutant allele man1-1, the winged helix domain of Arabidopsis TFIIFß1/MAN1 was dispensable for plant viability, whereas the cellular organization of the shoot and root apical meristems were abnormal. Forward genetic screening identified an epistatic interaction between the largest Pol II subunit nrpb1-A325V variant and the man1-1 mutation. The suppression of the man1-1 mutant developmental defects by a mutation in Pol II suggests a link between TFIIF functions in Arabidopsis transcription cycle and the maintenance of cellular organization in the shoot and root apical meristems.

A Repressor Protein Complex Regulates Leaf Growth in Arabidopsis.

Cell number is an important determinant of final organ size. In the leaf, a large proportion of cells are derived from the stomatal lineage. Meristemoids, which are stem cell-like precursor cells, undergo asymmetric divisions, generating several pavement cells adjacent to the two guard cells. However, the mechanism controlling the asymmetric divisions of these stem cells prior to differentiation is not well understood. Here, we characterized PEAPOD (PPD) proteins, the only transcriptional regulators known to negatively regulate meristemoid division. PPD proteins interact with KIX8 and KIX9, which act as adaptor proteins for the corepressor TOPLESS. D3-type cyclin encoding genes were identified among direct targets of PPD2, being negatively regulated by PPDs and KIX8/9. Accordingly, kix8 kix9 mutants phenocopied PPD loss-of-function producing larger leaves resulting from increased meristemoid amplifying divisions. The identified conserved complex might be specific for leaf growth in the second dimension, since it is not present in Poaceae (grasses), which also lack the developmental program it controls.

The Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor KRP6 Induces Mitosis and Impairs Cytokinesis in Giant Cells Induced by Plant-Parasitic Nematodes in Arabidopsis.

In Arabidopsis thaliana, seven cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors have been identified, designated interactors of CDKs or Kip-related proteins (KRPs). Here, the function of KRP6 was investigated during cell cycle progression in roots infected by plant-parasitic root-knot nematodes. Contrary to expectations, analysis of Meloidogyne incognita-induced galls of KRP6-overexpressing lines revealed a role for this particular KRP as an activator of the mitotic cell cycle. In accordance, KRP6-overexpressing suspension cultures displayed accelerated entry into mitosis, but delayed mitotic progression. Likewise, phenotypic analysis of cultured cells and nematode-induced giant cells revealed a failure in mitotic exit, with the appearance of multinucleated cells as a consequence. Strong KRP6 expression upon nematode infection and the phenotypic resemblance between KRP6 overexpression cell cultures and root-knot morphology point toward the involvement of KRP6 in the multinucleate and acytokinetic state of giant cells. Along these lines, the parasite might have evolved to manipulate plant KRP6 transcription to the benefit of gall establishment.

Transferring an optimized TAP-toolbox for the isolation of protein complexes to a portfolio of rice tissues.

Proteins are the cell's functional entities. Rather than operating independently, they interact with other proteins. Capturing in vivo protein complexes is therefore crucial to gain understanding of the function of a protein in a cellular context. Affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry has proven to yield a wealth of information about protein complex constitutions for a broad range of organisms. For Oryza sativa, the technique has been initiated in callus and shoots, but has not been optimized ever since. We translated an optimized tandem affinity purification (TAP) approach from Arabidopsis thaliana toward Oryza sativa, and demonstrate its applicability in a variety of rice tissues. A list of non-specific and false positive interactors is presented, based on re-occurrence over more than 170 independent experiments, to filter bona fide interactors. We demonstrate the sensitivity of our approach by isolating the complexes for the rice ANAPHASE PROMOTING COMPLEX SUBUNIT 10 (APC10) and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE D (CDKD) proteins from the proliferation zone of the emerging fourth leaf. Next to APC10 and CDKD, we tested several additional baits in the different rice tissues and reproducibly retrieved at least one interactor for 81.4 % of the baits screened for in callus tissue and T1 seedlings. By transferring an optimized TAP tag combined with state-of-the-art mass spectrometry, our TAP protocol enables the discovery of interactors for low abundance proteins in rice and opens the possibility to capture complex dynamics by comparing tissues at different stages of a developing rice organ.

Functional characterization of the Arabidopsis transcription factor bZIP29 reveals its role in leaf and root development.

Plant bZIP group I transcription factors have been reported mainly for their role during vascular development and osmosensory responses. Interestingly, bZIP29 has been identified in a cell cycle interactome, indicating additional functions of bZIP29 in plant development. Here, bZIP29 was functionally characterized to study its role during plant development. It is not present in vascular tissue but is specifically expressed in proliferative tissues. Genome-wide mapping of bZIP29 target genes confirmed its role in stress and osmosensory responses, but also identified specific binding to several core cell cycle genes and to genes involved in cell wall organization. bZIP29 protein complex analyses validated interaction with other bZIP group I members and provided insight into regulatory mechanisms acting on bZIP dimers. In agreement with bZIP29 expression in proliferative tissues and with its binding to promoters of cell cycle regulators, dominant-negative repression of bZIP29 altered the cell number in leaves and in the root meristem. A transcriptome analysis on the root meristem, however, indicated that bZIP29 might regulate cell number through control of cell wall organization. Finally, ectopic dominant-negative repression of bZIP29 and redundant factors led to a seedling-lethal phenotype, pointing to essential roles for bZIP group I factors early in plant development.

Constitutively active UVR8 photoreceptor variant in Arabidopsis.

Arabidopsis thaliana UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8) is a UV-B photoreceptor that initiates photomorphogenic responses underlying acclimation and UV-B tolerance in plants. UVR8 is a homodimer in its ground state, and UV-B exposure results in its instantaneous monomerization followed by interaction with CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1), a major factor in UV-B signaling. UV-B photoreception by UVR8 is based on intrinsic tryptophan aromatic amino acid residues, with tryptophan-285 as the main chromophore. We generated transgenic plants expressing UVR8 with a single amino acid change of tryptophan-285 to alanine. UVR8(W285A) appears monomeric and shows UV-B-independent interaction with COP1. Phenotypically, the plants expressing UVR8(W285A) exhibit constitutive photomorphogenesis associated with constitutive activation of target genes, elevated levels of anthocyanins, and enhanced, acclimation-independent UV-B tolerance. Moreover, we have identified COP1, REPRESSOR OF UV-B PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS 1 and 2 (RUP1 and RUP2), and the SUPPRESSOR OF PHYA-105 (SPA) family as proteins copurifying with UVR8(W285A). Whereas COP1, RUP1, and RUP2 are known to directly interact with UVR8, we show that SPA1 interacts with UVR8 indirectly through COP1. We conclude that UVR8(W285A) is a constitutively active UVR8 photoreceptor variant in Arabidopsis, as is consistent with the crucial importance of monomer formation and COP1 binding for UVR8 activity.

A generic tool for transcription factor target gene discovery in Arabidopsis cell suspension cultures based on tandem chromatin affinity purification.

Genome-wide identification of transcription factor (TF) binding sites is pivotal to our understanding of gene expression regulation. Although much progress has been made in the determination of potential binding regions of proteins by chromatin immunoprecipitation, this method has some inherent limitations regarding DNA enrichment efficiency and antibody necessity. Here, we report an alternative strategy for assaying in vivo TF-DNA binding in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cells by tandem chromatin affinity purification (TChAP). Evaluation of TChAP using the E2Fa TF and comparison with traditional chromatin immunoprecipitation and single chromatin affinity purification illustrates the suitability of TChAP and provides a resource for exploring the E2Fa transcriptional network. Integration with transcriptome, cis-regulatory element, functional enrichment, and coexpression network analyses demonstrates the quality of the E2Fa TChAP sequencing data and validates the identification of new direct E2Fa targets. TChAP enhances both TF target mapping throughput, by circumventing issues related to antibody availability, and output, by improving DNA enrichment efficiency.

Evidence for a role of Arabidopsis CDT1 proteins in gametophyte development and maintenance of genome integrity.

Meristems retain the ability to divide throughout the life cycle of plants, which can last for over 1000 years in some species. Furthermore, the germline is not laid down early during embryogenesis but originates from the meristematic cells relatively late during development. Thus, accurate cell cycle regulation is of utmost importance to avoid the accumulation of mutations during vegetative growth and reproduction. The Arabidopsis thaliana genome encodes two homologs of the replication licensing factor CDC10 Target1 (CDT1), and overexpression of CDT1a stimulates DNA replication. Here, we have investigated the respective functions of Arabidopsis CDT1a and CDT1b. We show that CDT1 proteins have partially redundant functions during gametophyte development and are required for the maintenance of genome integrity. Furthermore, CDT1-RNAi plants show endogenous DNA stress, are more tolerant than the wild type to DNA-damaging agents, and show constitutive induction of genes involved in DNA repair. This DNA stress response may be a direct consequence of reduced CDT1 accumulation on DNA repair or may relate to the ability of CDT1 proteins to form complexes with DNA polymerase ε, which functions in DNA replication and in DNA stress checkpoint activation. Taken together, our results provide evidence for a crucial role of Arabidopsis CDT1 proteins in genome stability.

The cell cycle controls spindle architecture in Arabidopsis by activating the augmin pathway.

To ensure an even segregation of chromosomes during somatic cell division, eukaryotes rely on mitotic spindles. Here, we measured prime characteristics of the Arabidopsis mitotic spindle and built a three-dimensional dynamic model using Cytosim. We identified the cell-cycle regulator CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE B1 (CDKB1) together with its cyclin partner CYCB3;1 as key regulators of spindle morphology in Arabidopsis. We found that the augmin component ENDOSPERM DEFECTIVE1 (EDE1) is a substrate of the CDKB1;1-CYCB3;1 complex. A non-phosphorylatable mutant rescue of ede1 resembled the spindle phenotypes of cycb3;1 and cdkb1 mutants and the protein associated less efficiently with spindle microtubules. Accordingly, reducing the level of augmin in simulations recapitulated the phenotypes observed in the mutants. Our findings emphasize the importance of cell-cycle-dependent phospho-control of the mitotic spindle in plant cells and support the validity of our model as a framework for the exploration of mechanisms controlling the organization of the eukaryotic spindle.

Chromatin attachment to the nuclear matrix represses hypocotyl elongation in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The nuclear matrix is a nuclear compartment that has diverse functions in chromatin regulation and transcription. However, how this structure influences epigenetic modifications and gene expression in plants is largely unknown. In this study, we show that a nuclear matrix binding protein, AHL22, together with the two transcriptional repressors FRS7 and FRS12, regulates hypocotyl elongation by suppressing the expression of a group of genes known as SMALL AUXIN UP RNAs (SAURs) in Arabidopsis thaliana. The transcriptional repression of SAURs depends on their attachment to the nuclear matrix. The AHL22 complex not only brings these SAURs, which contain matrix attachment regions (MARs), to the nuclear matrix, but it also recruits the histone deacetylase HDA15 to the SAUR loci. This leads to the removal of H3 acetylation at the SAUR loci and the suppression of hypocotyl elongation. Taken together, our results indicate that MAR-binding proteins act as a hub for chromatin and epigenetic regulators. Moreover, we present a mechanism by which nuclear matrix attachment to chromatin regulates histone modifications, transcription, and hypocotyl elongation.

Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA)5 Regulates Translation in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts to Enhance Growth and Stress Tolerance.

The late embryogenesis abundant (LEA)5 protein is predominantly expressed in Arabidopsis leaves in the dark, the levels of LEA5 transcripts decreasing rapidly upon illumination. LEA5 is important in plant responses to environmental stresses but the mechanisms involved have not been elucidated. We therefore explored LEA5 functions in Arabidopsis mutants (lea5) and transgenic Arabidopsis plants constitutively expressing LEA5 (OEX 2-5), as well as in transgenic barley lines expressing the Arabidopsis LEA5 gene. The OEX 2-5 plants grew better than controls and lea5 mutants in the presence of the prooxidants methyl viologen and menadione. Confocal microscopy of Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts expressing a LEA5-YFP fusion protein demonstrated that LEA5 could be localized to chloroplasts as well as mitochondria in Arabidopsis protoplasts. Tandem affinity purification (TAP) analysis revealed LEA5 interacts with the chloroplast DEAD-box ATP-dependent RNA helicase 22 (RH22) in Arabidopsis cells. Split YFP analysis confirmed the interaction between RH22 and LEA5 in chloroplasts. The abundance of translated protein products in chloroplasts was decreased in transgenic Arabidopsis plants and increased in lea5 knockout mutants. Conversely, the abundance of translated mitochondrial protein products was increased in OEX 2-5 plants and decreased in lea5 mutants. Mitochondrial electron transport rates were higher in the OEX 2-5 plants than the wild type. The transformed barley lines expressing the Arabidopsis LEA5 had increased seed yields, but they showed a greater drought-induced inhibition of photosynthesis than controls. Taken together, these data demonstrate that LEA5 regulates organellar translation, in order to enhance respiration relative to photosynthesis in response to stress.

Mapping of the plant SnRK1 kinase signalling network reveals a key regulatory role for the class II T6P synthase-like proteins.

The central metabolic regulator SnRK1 controls plant growth and survival upon activation by energy depletion, but detailed molecular insight into its regulation and downstream targets is limited. Here we used phosphoproteomics to infer the sucrose-dependent processes targeted upon starvation by kinases as SnRK1, corroborating the relation of SnRK1 with metabolic enzymes and transcriptional regulators, while also pointing to SnRK1 control of intracellular trafficking. Next, we integrated affinity purification, proximity labelling and crosslinking mass spectrometry to map the protein interaction landscape, composition and structure of the SnRK1 heterotrimer, providing insight in its plant-specific regulation. At the intersection of this multi-dimensional interactome, we discovered a strong association of SnRK1 with class II T6P synthase (TPS)-like proteins. Biochemical and cellular assays show that TPS-like proteins function as negative regulators of SnRK1. Next to stable interactions with the TPS-like proteins, similar intricate connections were found with known regulators, suggesting that plants utilize an extended kinase complex to fine-tune SnRK1 activity for optimal responses to metabolic stress.