Dutch-Flemish translation and cross-cultural adaption of the Spinal Cord Injury-Quality of Life (SCI-QOL) short forms.

PURPOSE: A spinal cord injury (SCI) has a large impact on a person's physical, psychological, and social health. Previous studies focused on physical recovery in patients with SCI and assessed their health-related quality of life (HRQOL) with general questionnaires, which often contain irrelevant questions. The SCI-QOL questionnaire was developed to specifically assess the HRQOL of the SCI population. A comprehensive translation and cross-cultural adaptation are required to use this questionnaire in the Netherlands and Flanders, Belgium. METHODS: All 23 short forms of the SCI-QOL for adults were translated from English into Dutch-Flemish using the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy translation methodology, with a cognitive debriefing being performed with 10 patients with SCI and 10 persons from the general population. RESULTS: The Dutch-Flemish PROMIS group previously translated 46 of the 207 items in the 23 short forms. Here, we achieved an acceptable translation of the other 161 items. A single Dutch-Flemish translation was obtained for 20 short forms, while separate Dutch and Flemish translations were necessary for the short forms Ambulation, Manual Wheelchair, and Stigma. CONCLUSION: The Dutch-Flemish translation of the SCI-QOL is now available for clinical and research purposes. Future studies should focus on the psychometric properties of this cross-culturally adapted version.

Definitions of traumatic conus medullaris and cauda equina syndrome: a systematic literature review.

STUDY DESIGN: A systematic review. OBJECTIVES: Conus medullaris syndrome (CMS) and cauda equina syndrome (CES) are well-known neurological entities. It is assumed that these syndromes are different regarding neurological and functional prognosis. However, literature concerning spinal trauma is ambiguous about the exact definition of the syndromes. METHODS: A MEDLINE, EMBASE and Cochrane literature search was performed. We included original articles in which clinical descriptions of CMS and/or CES were mentioned in patients following trauma to the thoracolumbar spine. RESULTS: Out of the 1046 articles, we identified 14 original articles concerning patients with a traumatic CMS and/or CES. Based on this review and anatomical data from cadaveric and radiological studies, CMS and CES could be more precisely defined. CONCLUSION: CMS may result from injury of vertebrae Th12-L2, and it involves damage to neural structures from spinal cord segment Th12 to nerve root S5. CES may result from an injury of vertebrae L3-L5, and it involves damage to nerve roots L3-S5. This differentiation between CMS and CES is necessary to examine the hypothesis that CES patients tend to have a better functional outcome.

Osseointegrated prosthesis for patients with an amputation : Multidisciplinary team approach in the Netherlands.

This article reviews the development of multidisciplinary osseointegration treatment in the Netherlands since its start in 2009. People experiencing limitations due to their socket prosthesis after a leg amputation present to the Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre for an osseointegration implant or "bone-anchored" prosthesis. In this article we share our experience with the first 100 patients regarding referral pattern, selection criteria, available osseointegration systems, preoperative planning, surgical treatment, the rehabilitation protocol, outcome measurement, revision surgery, and future developments.

Pre-hospital and acute management of traumatic spinal cord injury in the Netherlands: survey results urge the need for standardisation.

STUDY DESIGN: Questionnaire survey. OBJECTIVES: Although a range of novel therapeutic approaches for traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI) are being trialled in highly standardised, pre-clinical research models, little has been published about the extent of standardisation in health service delivery for newly injured tSCI patients. SETTING: All Emergency Medical Services (EMSs) and 11 level-1 trauma centres (L1TCs) in the Netherlands. METHODS: A survey assessing the organisation of pre-hospital and acute tSCI management was developed and distributed across all 23 pre-hospital EMSs and 11 L1TCs based in the Netherlands. RESULTS: Response rates for EMSs and L1TCs were 82 and 100%, respectively. Thirteen EMSs (68%) transported all patients who are suspected of having tSCI to L1TCs. The decision to transfer tSCI patients to L1TCs was primarily made by paramedics at the scene of accident (79%). Nonetheless, no EMS reported the use of validated neurological assessments for determining the likelihood of tSCI. The International Standards for Neurological Classification of SCI were used to determine the level and severity of tSCI in four centres, and three centres performed magnetic resonance imaging in all tSCI patients. Three L1TCs had spinal cord perfusion support protocols in place, and two centres administered methylprednisolon to acute tSCI patients. CONCLUSION: We found a large variance in the delivery of pre-hospital and acute tSCI management in a well-defined geographical catchment area. This survey urges the need for implementing standardised assessments and developing best-practice guidelines, which should be endorsed by all pre-hospital and acute tSCI health-care providers.

International standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury: classification skills of clinicians versus computational algorithms.

STUDY DESIGN: This is a retrospective analysis. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to describe and quantify the discrepancy in the classification of the International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI) by clinicians versus a validated computational algorithm. SETTINGS: European Multicenter Study on Human Spinal Cord Injury (EMSCI). METHODS: Fully documented ISNCSCI data sets from EMSCI's first years (2003-2005) classified by clinicians (mostly spinal cord medicine residents, who received in-house ISNCSCI training by senior SCI physicians) were computationally reclassified. Any differences in the scoring of sensory and motor levels, American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) or the zone of partial preservation (ZPP) were quantified. RESULTS: Four hundred and twenty ISNCSCI data sets were evaluated. The lowest agreement was found in motor levels (right: 62.1%, P=0.002; left: 61.8%, P=0.003), followed by motor ZPP (right: 81.6%, P=0.74; left 80.0%, P=0.27) and then AIS (83.4%, P=0.001). Sensory levels and sensory ZPP showed the best concordance (right sensory level: 90.8%, P=0.66; left sensory level: 90.0%, P=0.30; right sensory ZPP: 91.0%, P=0.18; left sensory ZPP: 92.2%, P=0.03). AIS B was most often misinterpreted as AIS C and vice versa (AIS B as C: 29.4% and AIS C as B: 38.6%). CONCLUSION: Most difficult classification tasks were the correct determination of motor levels and the differentiation between AIS B and AIS C/D. These issues should be addressed in upcoming ISNCSCI revisions. Training is strongly recommended to improve classification skills for clinical practice, as well as for clinical investigators conducting spinal cord studies. SPONSORSHIP: This study is partially funded by the International Foundation for Research in Paraplegia, Zurich, Switzerland.

Structural biomarkers in the cerebrospinal fluid within 24 h after a traumatic spinal cord injury: a descriptive analysis of 16 subjects.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To characterize the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of glial fibrillary acidic protein, neuron specific enolase (NSE), S-100ß, tau and neurofilament heavy chain (NFH) within 24 h of an acute traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), and to correlate these concentrations with the baseline severity of neurologic impairment as graded by the American Spinal Injury Association impairment scale (AIS). METHODS: A lumbar puncture was performed to obtain CSF from 16 acute traumatic SCI patients within 24 h post injury. Neurological examinations were performed within 24 h of injury and again at 6 or 12 months post injury. The correlations between the CSF concentrations and initial AIS were calculated by using Pearson correlation coefficients. In addition, an independent Student's t-test was used to test for differences in CSF concentrations between patients of different AIS grades. RESULTS: The CSF NSE concentrations were significantly correlated with the baseline neurologic impairment being either 'motor complete' (AIS A, B) or 'motor incomplete' (AIS C, D) (r=0.520, P<0.05). The mean S-100ß concentration in motor complete patients was significantly higher compared with motor incomplete patients; 377.2 µg l(-1) (s.d.±523 µg l(-1)) vs 57.1 µg l(-1) (s.d.±56 µg l(-1)) (P<0.05), respectively. Lastly, the mean NFH concentration in motor complete patients was significantly higher compared with motor incomplete patient, 11 813 ng l(-1) (s.d.±16 195 ng l(-1)) vs 1446.8 ng l(-1) (s.d.±1533 ng l(-1)), (P<0.05), respectively. CONCLUSION: In this study we identified differences in the structural CSF biomarkers NSE, S-100ß and NFH between motor complete and motor incomplete SCI patients. Our data showed no clear differences in any of the protein concentrations between the different AIS grades.

Diffusion-weighted MR imaging within 24 h post-injury after traumatic spinal cord injury: a qualitative meta-analysis between T2-weighted imaging and diffusion-weighted MR imaging in 18 patients.

STUDY DESIGN: Only few studies have been published about diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) within 24 h of traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI). OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to compare the imaging findings from conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and DWI in seven tSCI patients with findings in the existing literature. METHODS: Seven patients with tSCI at neurologic levels C2-T10 were examined with conventional MRI and DWI within 24 h post-injury. DWI was obtained with a b-factor of 1000 s mm(-2). American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) scores and Spinal Cord Independence Measurement (SCIM) II item 12 after 12 months were collected. In addition, MEDLINE was searched from 1995 to 2010 to identify clinical tSCI studies reporting on MRI, DWI and apparent diffusion coefficient maps within 24 h post-injury to perform a meta-analysis. Images obtained with a b-factor of 1000 s mm(-2) were compared with lower b-factors. Differences were calculated using χ (2) tests. RESULTS: No associations were identified between the images of the seven tSCI patients and ASIA or SCIM II scores. Eighteen SCI patients (11 from the retrieved publications) were included in the meta-analysis. The detection rates of hyperintense signals on T2-weighted and DW imaging did not show significant differences at 94 and 72%, respectively. In addition, there were no significant differences in detection rates or diffusion abnormalities between subjects in whom DW images were obtained with a maximum b-factor of 1000 or <1000 s mm(-2). CONCLUSION: Our analysis suggests that T2-weighted and DW imaging have comparable detection rates for spinal cord damage in tSCI patients within 24 h post-injury.

How does knowledge about spinal cord injury-related complications develop in subjects with spinal cord injury? A descriptive analysis in 214 patients.

STUDY DESIGN: Monocentric cohort study. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the acquisition of knowledge about spinal cord injury (SCI)-related complications in SCI patients. SETTING: Level 1 trauma center. METHODS: All patients with a traumatic or non-traumatic SCI were included in the study. Data were collected at admission, post-admission at 1 and 3 months and post-discharge at 6, 18 and 30 months. The discharge of all patients was between 3 and 6 months post-admission. Knowledge about pressure ulcers and bladder management was tested using the 'Knowledge' score. This score has a minimum and maximum of 0 and 20 points. To detect differences across the multiple time intervals, the Friedman test was used. Differences in the number of patients with poor (0-8), average (9-12) and good knowledge (13-20) between the different age classifications (age at injury) were calculated using a χ (2)-test. RESULTS: A total of 214 patients were included. At discharge subjects had increased their knowledge score to 11.2 compared with 5.4 on admission (P < 0.001). After 30 months, however, the mean score decreased to 10.8 points. At the time of discharge, the number of patients who achieved poor, average or good knowledge were 48 (22.4%), 65 (30.4%) and 101 (47.2%), respectively. Subjects of ∼50 years old and tetraplegics had better (P < 0.001) knowledge compared with subjects of ∼50 years old and paraplegics, respectively. CONCLUSION: In this study, less than 50% of SCI patients had good knowledge about bladder management and pressure ulcers after being discharged.

Is the outcome in acute spinal cord ischaemia different from that in traumatic spinal cord injury? A cross-sectional analysis of the neurological and functional outcome in a cohort of 93 paraplegics.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To compare the neurological outcome between paraplegic patients with acute spinal cord ischaemia syndrome (ASCIS) or traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI) and to investigate the influence of SCI aetiology on the total Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM)-II score. SETTING: Level 1 trauma centre. METHODS: Initial (0-40 days) and chronic-phase (6-12 months) American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) sensory scores, lower extremity motor score (LEMS) and chronic-phase total SCIM-II scores were analysed. Differences between ASCIS and tSCI patients were calculated using Student's t-tests and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. To assess which variables give rise to the prediction of total SCIM-II score, a multiple linear regression analysis was used. These predictor variables included complete (ASIA impairment scale A) or incomplete SCI (AIS B, C, and D), aetiology, age and gender. RESULTS: Out of 93 included patients, 20 ASCIS and 73 tSCI patients were identified. In the complete SCI group, the initial pinprick scores were higher (P<0.05) in ASCIS patients compared with tSCI patients, 37.9 (95% Confidence Interval (CI), 23.3-52.5) and 27.3 (95% CI, 24.1-30.4), respectively. No other relevant differences in neurological outcome were identified between ASCIS and tSCI patients; however, the total SCIM-II scores were higher (P<0.05) in tSCI patients after 12 months. Using the linear regression analysis, we were able to predict 31.4% of the variability. The aetiology was not significant in this model. CONCLUSION: The neurological outcome was independent of the diagnosis ASCIS or tSCI. Furthermore, the diagnosis ASCIS or tSCI was not a significant predictor for total SCIM II scores after 12 months. SPONSORSHIP: This study was granted by the 'Internationale Stiftung für Forschung in Paraplegie' (IFP), Zürich, Switzerland.

Diagnostic criteria of traumatic central cord syndrome. Part 3: descriptive analyses of neurological and functional outcomes in a prospective cohort of traumatic motor incomplete tetraplegics.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective multicenter cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To compare the neurological recovery and functional outcomes between traumatic central cord syndrome (TCCS) patients and motor incomplete tetraplegic patients. SETTING: European Multicenter Study of human spinal cord injury. METHODS: In 248 traumatic motor incomplete tetraplegics, initial phase (0-15 days) American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) impairment grading, upper and lower extremity motor scores (UEMS and LEMS), upper and lower sensory scores and chronic phase (6 or 12 months) neurological outcomes were analyzed. In addition, chronic phase self-care and indoor mobility Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM) items were studied. Tetraplegics were subdivided into three groups: (1) non-TCCS group (UEMSLEMS), (2) intermediate-TCCS group (UEMS=(1-9 points)

Relevance of the diagnosis traumatic cervical Brown-Séquard-plus syndrome: an analysis based on the neurological and functional recovery in a prospective cohort of 148 patients.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective multi-center cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To compare the neurological and functional recovery between tetraplegic Brown-Séquard-plus syndrome (BSPS) and incomplete tetraplegia (non-BSPS). SETTING: European Multicenter Study of Human Spinal Cord Injury (EM-SCI). METHODS: BSPS was defined as a traumatic incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) with ipsilateral weakness and contralateral loss of pinprick sensation at neurologic levels C2-T1. Acute (0-15 days) and chronic phase (6 or 12 months) were assessed for the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) sensory scores, upper extremity motor scores and lower extremity motor scores. Furthermore, chronic phase scores of all Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM) II items were analyzed. Differences in neurological and functional outcome between BSPS patients and non-BSPS patients were calculated using Student's t-tests and Wilcoxon signed rank tests. RESULTS: Out of 148 tetraplegic patients, 30 were diagnosed with BSPS. Patients with an ASIA impairment scale (AIS) B were significantly (P<0.001) more identified in non-BSPS patients (25%) compared with BSPS patients (3%), respectively. After 12 months, the median scores for sphincter management of the bladder for both BSPS and non-BSPS patients were 15. Both 25 and 75% quartile median scores were 15 for BSPS patients and 12 and 15 for non-BSPS patients (P<0.02). Except for the difference in bladder function, no significant differences were identified in other SCIM II subitems and ASIA motor or sensory scores between BSPS and non-BSPS patients when stratified for injury severity by excluding AIS B patients. CONCLUSION: Compared with incomplete tetraplegic patients, patients with cervical BSPS have a similar neurological and functional recovery when matched for the AIS.

Diagnostic criteria of traumatic central cord syndrome. Part 1: a systematic review of clinical descriptors and scores.

STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review. BACKGROUND: The applied definition of traumatic central cord syndrome (TCCS) lacks specific quantified diagnostic criteria. OBJECTIVE: To review currently applied TCCS diagnostic criteria and quantitative data regarding the 'disproportionate weakness' between the upper and lower extremities described in original studies reporting on TCCS subjects. METHODS: A MEDLINE (1966 to 2008) literature search was conducted. The descriptors applied to define TCCS were extracted from all included articles. We included original studies that reported on the differences in motor score (based on the Medical Research Council scale) between the total upper extremity motor score (UEMS) and the total lower extremity motor score (LEMS), in a minimum of five TCCS patients at the time of hospital admission. The mean difference between the total UEMS and the total LEMS of the patients included in each study was calculated. Case reports were excluded. RESULTS: None of the identified studies on TCCS patients reported inclusion and/or exclusion criteria using a quantified difference between the UEMS and LEMS. Out of 30 retrieved studies, we identified seven different clinical descriptors that have been applied as TCCS diagnostic criteria. Nine studies reporting on a total of 312 TCCS patients were eligible for analysis. The mean total UEMS was 10.5 motor points lower than the mean total LEMS. CONCLUSIONS: There is no consensus on the diagnostic criteria for TCCS. Nevertheless, this review revealed an average of 10 motor points between the UEMS and LEMS as a possible TCCS diagnostic criterion. However, further discussion by an expert panel will be required to establish definitive diagnostic criteria.

Diagnostic criteria of traumatic central cord syndrome. Part 2: a questionnaire survey among spine specialists.

STUDY DESIGN: A questionnaire survey. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the need for the introduction of quantitative diagnostic criteria for the traumatic central cord syndrome (TCCS). SETTING: An online questionnaire survey with participants from all over the world. METHODS: An invitation to participate in an eight-item online survey questionnaire was sent to surgeon members of AOSpine International. RESULTS: Out of 3340 invited professionals, 157 surgeons (5%) from 41 countries completed the survey. Whereas most of the respondents (75%) described greater impairment of the upper extremities than of the lower extremities in their own TCCS definitions, symptoms such as sensory deficit (39%) and bladder dysfunctions (24%) were reported less frequently. Initially, any difference in motor strength between the upper and lower extremities was considered most frequently (23%) as a 'disproportionate' difference in power. However, after presenting literature review findings, the majority of surgeons (61%) considered a proposed difference of at least 10 points of power (based on the Medical Research Council scale) in favor of the lower extremities as an acceptable cutoff criterion for a diagnosis of TCCS. Most of the participants (40%) felt that applying a single criterion to the diagnosis of TCCS is insufficient for research purposes. CONCLUSION: Various definitions of TCCS were used by physicians involved in the spinal trauma care. The authors consider a difference of at least 10 motor score points between upper and lower extremity power a clear diagnostic criterion. For clinical research purposes, this diagnostic criterion can be considered as a face valid addendum to the commonly applied TCCS definition as introduced by Schneider et al.

Safety, prosthesis wearing time and health-related quality of life of lower extremity bone-anchored prostheses using a press-fit titanium osseointegration implant: A prospective one-year follow-up cohort study.

BACKGROUND: We described safety and functional one-year follow-up outcomes of individuals with lower limb amputation treated with bone-anchored prostheses using titanium press-fit osseointegration implants. METHODS: All consecutive individuals treated between March 2015 and June 2018 with curved osseointegration femur implant (OFI-C) indicated for a long femoral remnant, gamma osseointegration femur implant (OFI-Y) indicated for a short femoral remnant, or osseointegration tibia implant (OTI) were eligible for this study. All adverse events were evaluated, infections were graded as follows: grade 1 and 2: low- and high-grade soft tissue infection, respectively, grade 3: deep bone infection, grade 4: septic implant failure. Functional outcome measures included prosthesis wearing time (PUS), health-related quality of life (GS), and the overall situation as an amputee (GS Q3); evaluated with the Questionnaire of persons with trans-femoral amputation (Q-TFA) before surgery and at one-year follow-up. RESULTS: Ninety of 91 individuals were included (mean age: 54±14 yrs, 26 females); treated with 53, 16 and 21 OFI-C, OFI-Y and OTI, respectively. Soft tissue infections (grade 1: 11 events, grade 2: 10 events) were treated successfully with antibiotics except in two (OFI-C and OFI-Y), who required additional surgery due to recurrent stoma irritation and peri-stoma abscess drainage. One individual with dysvascular amputation (OTI) developed septic implant loosening and occlusion of the femoral artery resulting in a transfemoral amputation. No aseptic loosening's occurred. One individual (OFI-Y) required stoma surgical refashioning due to soft tissue redundancy. At baseline mean ±SD and median (25th to 75th PCTL) Q-TFA PUS and GS were 52±39, 52(7-90) and 40±19, 42(25-50) and improved significantly to 88±18, 90 (90-100) and 71±15, 75 (67-83) at one-year follow-up. The GS Q3 improved over time. CONCLUSION: Titanium osseointegration implants can be safely used within a one-year follow-up period. The performance improved compared to the use of a socket-suspended prosthesis.

Safety and Performance of Bone-Anchored Prostheses in Persons with a Transfemoral Amputation: A 5-Year Follow-up Study.

BACKGROUND: For almost 30 years, bone-anchored prostheses have offered an alternative solution to prosthetic sockets by attaching the artificial limb directly to the femoral residuum by means of an osseointegration implant. Osseointegration implant surgery was introduced in our center in 2009. The aim of the present study is to report on safety, prosthesis-wearing time, and health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) for patients with femoral bone-anchored prostheses during a 5-year follow-up period. METHODS: All patients who underwent implantation of a press-fit osseointegration implant between May 2009 and November 2013 were eligible for the present study. Implantation was performed in 2 stages. Adverse events included infectious complications (grade 1 to 4), aseptic loosening, breakage, stoma-redundant tissue, and stoma hypergranulation. Prosthesis-wearing time and HRQoL were measured with the Questionnaire for Persons with a Transfemoral Amputation (Q-TFA) prosthetic use score and global score, respectively. RESULTS: Thirty-nine of 42 eligible patients were included. Thirty patients (77%) presented with some kind of infection (156 events in total), with 148 (95%) events being classified as grade 1 or 2 and 8 events (5%) being classified as grade 3; the latter 8 events occurred in 4 patients. There were no instances of septic loosening. The intramedullary stem of the osseointegration implant broke in 2 patients. In total, soft-tissue refashioning had to be done 30 times in 14 patients. The Q-TFA median prosthetic use and global scores improved significantly from 71 to 100 and from 33 to 75, respectively (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the adverse events, patient prosthetic use and HRQoL improved significantly. Grade-1 and 2 infections were frequent but could mostly be treated with nonoperative measures. Most infections seemed to occur in the first 2 years and did not lead to deep infections. Two broken intramedullary stems were revised successfully. Current developments focus on reduction of infectious complications and prevention of osseointegration implant breakage. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Is determination between complete and incomplete traumatic spinal cord injury clinically relevant? Validation of the ASIA sacral sparing criteria in a prospective cohort of 432 patients.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective multicenter longitudinal cohort study. OBJECTIVE: To validate the prognostic value of the acute phase sacral sparing measurements with regard to chronic phase-independent ambulation in patients with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: European Multicenter Study of Human Spinal Cord Injury (EM-SCI). METHODS: In 432 patients, acute phase (0-15 days) American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA)/International Spinal Cord Society neurological standard scale (AIS) grades, ASIA sacral sparing measurements, which are S4-5 light touch (LT), S4-5 pin prick (PP), anal sensation and voluntary anal contraction; and chronic phase (6 or 12 months) indoor mobility Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM) measurements were analyzed. Calculations of positive and negative predictive values (PPV/NPV) as well as univariate and multivariate logistic regressions were performed in all four sacral sparing criteria. The area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC) ratios of all regression equations was calculated. RESULTS: To achieve independent ambulation 1-year post injury, a normal S4-5 PP score showed the best PPV (96.5%, P<0.001, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 87.9-99.6). Best NPV was reported in the S4-5 LT score (91.7%, P<0.001, 95% CI: 81.6-97.2). The use of the combination of only voluntary anal contraction and the S4-5 LT and PP sensory scores (AUC: 0.906, P<0.001, 95% CI: 0.871-0.941) showed significantly better (P<0.001, 95% CI: 0.038-0.128) discriminating results in prognosticating 1-year independent ambulation than with the use of currently used distinction between complete and incomplete SCI (AUC: 0.823, P<0.001, 95% CI: 0.781-0.864). CONCLUSIONS: Out of the four sacral sparing criteria, the acute phase anal sensory score measurements do not contribute significantly to the prognosis of independent ambulation. The combination of the acute phase voluntary anal contraction and the S4-5 LT and PP scores, predicts significantly better chronic phase-independent ambulation outcomes than the currently used distinction between complete and incomplete SCI. SPONSORSHIP: This study was granted by 'Acute Zorgregio Oost' and the 'Internationale Stiftung für Forschung in Paraplegie (IFP)'.

ASIA impairment scale conversion in traumatic SCI: is it related with the ability to walk? A descriptive comparison with functional ambulation outcome measures in 273 patients.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective multicenter longitudinal cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationship between improvements of the American Spinal Injury Association/International Spinal Cord Society (ASIA/ISCoS) neurological standard scale (AIS) outcome measure and improvements of functional ambulatory outcome measures in patients with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: European multicenter study of human SCI (EM-SCI). METHODS: In 273 eligible patients with traumatic SCI, acute (0-15 days) and chronic phase (6 or 12 months) AIS grades, timed up and go (TUG) test and 10-m walk test (10MWT) outcome measurements were analyzed. Subanalysis of those patients who did have AIS conversion was performed to assess its relation with functional ambulatory outcomes. RESULTS: Studied population consisted of 161 acute phase AIS grade A patients; 37 grade B; 43 grade C and 32 acute phase AIS grade D patients. Forty-two patients (26%) converted from AIS grade A, 27 (73%) from grade B, 32 (75%) from grade C and five patients (16%) from AIS grade D. The frequencies of AIS conversions and functional ambulation recovery outcomes were significantly different (P<0.001) in patients with motor complete SCI. The ratio of patients with both recovery of ambulatory function and AIS conversion (n=101) differed significantly (P<0.001) between the acute phase AIS grade scores; AIS grade A (6/40 patients, 15%), B (9/27 patients, 33%), C (23/29 patients, 79%) and D (5/5 patients 100%). CONCLUSIONS: The AIS conversion outcome measure is poorly related to the ability to walk in traumatic SCI patients. Therefore, the authors recommend the use of functional ambulation recovery outcome measures in prognosticating the recovery of walking capacity and performance of patients with SCI.

Biomarkers in spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Literature review. OBJECTIVES: In traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), much effort has been put into the evaluation of SCI severity and the prediction of recovery potential. An accurate prediction of the initial damage of the spinal cord that differentiates between the severities of SCI however, may help physicians in choosing a particular neuroprotective treatment in the acute phase. Neurochemical biomarkers may possibly fulfil these requirements. The aim of this review was to describe (1) the current status of neurochemical biomarkers in SCI; (2) their potential diagnostic role in SCI. METHODS: MEDLINE was searched from 1966 to 2008 to identify publications concerning biomarkers in traumatic SCI. RESULTS: The biomarkers S-100beta, neuron-specific enolase, neurofilament light chain, and Glial fibrillary acidic protein are significantly increased in cases of (experimental) spinal cord injury. Furthermore, increased serum concentrations of S-100beta have been correlated with an unfavourable functional outcome. Although biomarkers in SCI show promising results, considerations and shortcomings, such as polytrauma, haemolysis, extracerebral sources, and poor resuscitation, must be studied in greater detail before biomarkers can be utilised in the clinical care of SCI. CONCLUSIONS: Quantitative standards for determining the extent of SCI during the acute phase must be developed and validated. Even though increased concentrations of neurochemical biomarkers have been identified in patients with SCI, these do not yet provide a sensitive prognostic tool. Considering the limited availability of sensitive prognostic tools, neurochemical biomarkers of SCI should be evaluated and validated in future clinical trials.

Critical illness VR rehabilitation device (X-VR-D): evaluation of the potential use for early clinical rehabilitation.

We present a new critical illness VR rehabilitation device (X-VR-D) that enables diversified self-training and is applicable early in the rehabilitation of severely injured or ill patients. The X-VR-D consists of a VR program delivering a virtual scene on a flat screen and simultaneously processing commands to a moving chair mounted on a motion system. Sitting in the moving chair and exposed to a virtual reality environment the device evokes anticipatory and reactive muscle contractions in trunk and extremities for postural control. In this study we tested the device in 10 healthy subjects to evaluate whether the enforced perturbations indeed evoke sufficient and reproducible EMG muscle activations. We found that particular fast roll and pitch movements evoke adequate trunk and leg muscle activity. Higher angular velocities and higher angles of inclination elicited broader EMG bursts and larger amplitudes. The muscle activation pattern was highly consistent between different subjects and although we found some habituation of EMG responses in consecutive training sessions, the general pattern was maintained and was predictable for specific movements. The habituation was characterized by more efficient muscle contractions and better muscle relaxation during the rest positions of the device. Furthermore we found that the addition of a virtual environment to the training session evoked more preparatory and anticipatory muscle activation than sessions without a virtual environment. We conclude that the X-VR-D is safe and effective to elicit consistent and reproducible muscle activity in trunk and leg muscles in healthy subjects and thus can be used as a training method.

Validation of the weight-drop contusion model in rats: a comparative study of human spinal cord injury.

Animal models are widely used for studying the pathophysiology as well as treatment strategies for injuries of the central nervous system. However, it is still unclear in how far the rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI) is valid for human SCI. Therefore, comparisons were made among functional, electrophysiological, and morphological outcome parameters following SCI in rats and humans. Contusion of the mid-thoracic spinal cord in 27 adult rats was induced by a weight-drop, leading to severe deficits in open field locomotion at a chronic stage. The data of 85 human patients with chronic SCI were collected and compared with the rat data. In electrophysiological recordings, prolonged latencies and reduced amplitudes in both motor evoked potentials (MEP) and somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) were closely correlated to the impairment of locomotor capacity of lower limbs in rats and humans. The morphological parameters assessed by high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in both species indicated that the lesion length and spinal cord atrophy were significantly related to the electrophysiological and functional outcome parameters. In rats, histological analysis was performed and showed, in addition to the MRI, a close relationship between spared white matter and locomotor capacity. Our results suggest an analogous relationship in rats and humans with respect to functional, electrophysiological, and morphological outcomes. Thus, the techniques for evaluating the extent and severity of SCI in humans and rats are of comparable value. This indicates that the rat can serve as an adequate animal model for research on functional and morphological changes after SCI and the effects of new treatment strategies.