Male androphilia, fraternal birth order, and female fecundity in Samoa: A 10-y retrospective.

Two separate but related literatures have examined familial correlates of male androphilia (i.e., sexual attraction and arousal to masculine adult males). The fraternal birth order effect (FBOE) is a widely established finding that each biological older brother a male has increased the probability of androphilia 20-35% above baseline rates. Other family demographic variables, such as reproduction by mothers, maternal aunts, and grandmothers, have been used to test evolutionary hypotheses that sexually antagonistic genes lead to androphilia among males, lowering or eliminating reproduction, which is offset by greater reproductive output among their female relatives. These proposed female fecundity effects (FFEs), and the FBOE, have historically been treated as separate yet complementary ways to understand the development and evolution of male androphilia. However, this approach ignores a vital confound within the data. The high overall reproductive output indicative of an FFE results in similar statistical patterns as the FBOE, wherein women with high reproductive output subsequently produce later-born androphilic sons. Thus, examination of the FBOE requires analytic approaches capable of controlling for the FFE, and vice-versa. Here, we present data simultaneously examining the FBOE and FFE for male androphilia in a large dataset collected in Samoa across 10 y of fieldwork, which only shows evidence of the FBOE.

Gender diversity is correlated with dimensional neurodivergent traits but not categorical neurodevelopmental diagnoses in children.

BACKGROUND: Gender clinic and single-item questionnaire-based data report increased co-occurrence of gender diversity and neurodevelopmental conditions. The nuances of these associations are under-studied. We used a transdiagnostic approach, combining categorical and dimensional characterization of neurodiversity, to further the understanding of its associations with gender diversity in identity and expression in children. METHODS: Data from 291 children (Autism N = 104, ADHD N = 104, Autism + ADHD N = 17, neurotypical N = 66) aged 4-12 years enrolled in the Province of Ontario Neurodevelopmental Network were analyzed. Gender diversity was measured multi-dimensionally using a well-validated parent-report instrument, the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children (GIQC). We used gamma regression models to determine the significant correlates of gender diversity among age, puberty, sex-assigned-at-birth, categorical neurodevelopmental diagnoses, and dimensional neurodivergent traits (using the Social Communication Questionnaire and the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD Symptoms and Normal Behavior Rating Scales). Internalizing and externalizing problems were included as covariates. RESULTS: Neither a categorical diagnosis of autism nor ADHD significantly correlated with current GIQC-derived scores. Instead, higher early-childhood dimensional autistic social-communication traits correlated with higher current overall gender incongruence (as defined by GIQC-14 score). This correlation was potentially moderated by sex-assigned-at-birth: greater early-childhood autistic social-communication traits were associated with higher current overall gender incongruence in assigned-males-at-birth, but not assigned-females-at-birth. For fine-grained gender diversity domains, greater autistic restricted-repetitive behavior traits were associated with greater diversity in gender identity across sexes-assigned-at-birth; greater autistic social-communication traits were associated with lower stereotypical male expression across sexes-assigned-at-birth. CONCLUSIONS: Dimensional autistic traits, rather than ADHD traits or categorical neurodevelopmental diagnoses, were associated with gender diversity domains across neurodivergent and neurotypical children. The association between early-childhood autistic social-communication traits and overall current gender diversity was most evident in assigned-males-at-birth. Nuanced interrelationships between neurodivergence and gender diversity should be better understood to clarify developmental links and to offer tailored support for neurodivergent and gender-diverse populations.

Observations on Gender Variance in Chinese Community Children Measured by the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children.

Few studies have examined how gender variance (GV), broadly defined as gender identity and behaviors (e.g., activities and preferences) that do not correspond with culturally defined gender norms, manifests in community samples, particularly in children and outside Western contexts. We present data based on the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children (GIQC; Johnson et al., 2004) among 461 Chinese community children (4-12 years old) to gauge how well the GIQC serves as a measure of GV and the prevalence of GV. We examined the descriptive scores of GV, its relationship to a gender-typing measure that has been validated in Chinese children (the Child Play Behavior and Activity Questionnaire, CPBAQ), the scores on the GIQC of children whose gender is incongruent with birth-assigned sex, and the binned category distributions (from gender-variant to gender-conforming) in comparison to a Canadian community sample (van der Miesen et al., 2018). The Chinese children on average scored toward the gender-conforming end and children assigned female at birth showed more GV than children assigned male at birth. More importantly, the GIQC appears to be a reliable and sensitive measure of GV in the Chinese sample. GIQC scores correlated significantly with CPBAQ scores and showed a very similar reliability coefficient, gender difference effect size, and bin distribution pattern as the Canadian reference sample. Also, children reported as gender/sex incongruent had the most gender-variant GIQC scores. Although clinically gender-referred Chinese children are required to establish culturally specific cutoff points, these findings provide initial evidence for the characteristics of GV, the applicability of the GIQC as a measure of GV in Chinese community children, and the comparisons of GIQC categories between Chinese and Canadian community samples.

Carving the Biodevelopment of Same-Sex Sexual Orientation at Its Joints.

Sexual orientation is a core aspect of human experience and understanding its development is fundamental to psychology as a scientific discipline. Biological perspectives have played an important role in uncovering the processes that contribute to sexual orientation development. Research in this field has relied on a variety of populations, including community, clinical, and cross-cultural samples, and has commonly focused on female gynephilia (i.e., female sexual attraction to adult females) and male androphilia (i.e., male sexual attraction to adult males). Genetic, hormonal, and immunological processes all appear to influence sexual orientation. Consistent with biological perspectives, there are sexual orientation differences in brain development and evidence indicates that similar biological influences apply across cultures. An outstanding question in the field is whether the hypothesized biological influences are all part of the same process or represent different developmental pathways leading to same-sex sexual orientation. Some studies indicate that same-sex sexually oriented people can be divided into subgroups who likely experienced different biological influences. Consideration of gender expression in addition to sexual orientation might help delineate such subgroups. Thus, future research on the possible existence of such subgroups could prove to be valuable for uncovering the biological development of sexual orientation. Recommendations for such future research are discussed.

A Test of the Kin Selection Hypothesis for Female Gynephilia in Thailand.

Female gynephilia (i.e., sexual attraction to adult females) is considered an evolutionary paradox because it reduces direct reproduction, yet it is influenced by genetic factors and has persisted over time and across different cultures. The Kin Selection Hypothesis proposes that same-sex attracted individuals offset their lowered direct reproduction by engaging in kin-directed altruism that increases the reproduction of close genetic relatives, thereby enhancing inclusive fitness. Previous research on male same-sex attraction found evidence to support this hypothesis in some cultures. The present study employed a Thai sample to compare altruistic tendencies towards kin and non-kin children in heterosexual women (n = 285), lesbian women (n = 59), toms (i.e., masculine gynephilic females who take on a nonbinary gender identity; n = 181), and dees (i.e., feminine gynephilic females who are attracted to toms; n = 154). The Kin Selection Hypothesis of same-sex attraction predicts that gynephilic groups would show increased kin-directed altruism compared with heterosexual women, but we did not find evidence supporting this prediction. Instead, the tendency to invest more towards kin than non-kin children was more exaggerated in heterosexual women than lesbian women. Also, heterosexual women showed greater dissociation between kin and non-kin altruistic tendencies compared with toms and dees, which may suggest the former's cognition is better attuned for kin-directed altruism. Thus, the present findings were contrary to the Kin Selection Hypothesis for female gynephilia. Alternative explanations regarding the maintenance of genetic factors predisposing individuals to female gynephilia are discussed and require further investigation.

Not Who You Are, But Who You Are With: Re-examining Women's Less Satisfying Sexual Debuts.

Gender differences in appraisals of first intercourse are among the largest in sexuality research, with women indicating less satisfying "sexual debuts" than men. Dispositional or "actor-level" explanations for this gender gap are pervasive, yet research has largely examined heterosexual debuts in which actor gender and partner gender are confounded. We assessed whether women's less satisfying sexual debuts are better explained by actor gender or partner gender, comparing experiences of women who debuted with men (WDM) with those of men and women who debuted with women (MDW, WDW). Retrospective accounts of sexual debut were collected from 3033 adults. At first intercourse, we found that WDW had equal physical and emotional satisfaction to MDW, and more satisfaction than WDM, suggesting satisfaction gaps owing to partner gender, not actor gender. This pattern did not extend to a comparison event (first masturbation), where WDW and WDM had similar satisfaction, but less satisfaction than MDW, suggesting an actor gender gap. To identify sources of satisfaction gaps, we probed for corresponding differences in the circumstances of sexual debut. Sexual circumstances were more strongly implicated than nonsexual ones, with relative deprivation of glans stimulation explaining relative dissatisfaction at first intercourse, but not first masturbation, and orgasm explaining it at both. Findings challenge the view that the satisfaction gap at first intercourse reflects an inherent difference between genders. Indeed, they demonstrate similarities when partner gender does not differ and suggest strategies for ensuring equal sexual satisfaction-and equal sexual rights realization-at (hetero) sexual debut.

The Risks and Benefits of Being "Early to Bed": Toward a Broader Understanding of Age at Sexual Debut and Sexual Health in Adulthood.

BACKGROUND: A younger age at sexual intercourse has frequently been linked to adverse sexual health outcomes. Yet, little is known about its associations with healthy sexual function, and less still about the timing of pre-coital sexual debuts and adult sexual health. AIM: We examined associations between an earlier sexual debut and subsequent sexual health, using broad operationalizations of each that capture pre-coital experiences and positive outcomes. Connections to sexual health risk and healthy sexual function were assessed through the lens of the dual-control model of sexual response. METHODS: Data on age at first sexual intercourse, first sexual contact, first sexual stimulation, and first orgasm, as well as sexual health risk and healthy sexual function were gathered from 3,139 adults. OUTCOMES: Adverse sexual events (reproductive illness, infection, or injury affecting sexual activity; pregnancy termination and/or loss; non-volitional sex) and current sexual difficulties (Female [FSFI] and/or Male Sexual Function Index [MSFI] scores; Sexual Excitation and/or Sexual Inhibition Inventory for Women and Men [SESII-W/M] scores). RESULTS: When defined narrowly as first sexual intercourse, earlier sexual debut was associated with adverse sexual events, including non-volitional sex, pregnancy termination and/or loss, and reproductive illness, infection, or injury affecting sexual activity. However, it was also related to healthier sexual function, including less pain during vaginal penetration, better orgasmic functioning, and lower sexual inhibition. When sexual debut was broadened to include pre-coital experiences, earlier sexual contact, like earlier sexual intercourse, was associated with non-volitional sex. However, earlier sexual stimulation and orgasm were unrelated to adverse outcomes. Rather, these related to fewer sexual desire difficulties, and greater sexual excitation. Exploratory mediation analyses revealed later sexual intercourse and orgasm were connected to sexual difficulties through higher sexual inhibition and lower sexual excitation, respectively. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: When sexual functioning is impaired, delay of both coital and noncoital debuts may warrant assessment, and sexual excitation and inhibition may be targets for intervention. To facilitate healthy sexual development of young people, non-coital debuts with and without a partner may warrant inclusion in risk management and health promotion strategies, respectively. STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS: Although this research operationalized sexual debut and sexual health broadly, and examined associations between them, it is limited by its cross-sectional retrospective design and non-clinical convenience sample. CONCLUSION: From a risk-based perspective, earlier sexual intercourse is adversely related to sexual health. Yet, it is also associated with healthy sexual function. Indeed, earlier sexual initiation may confer more benefits than risks when sexual debuts beyond intercourse are considered. Peragine DE, Skorska MN, Maxwell JA, et al. The Risks and Benefits of Being "Early to Bed": Toward a Broader Understanding of Age at Sexual Debut and Sexual Health in Adulthood. J Sex Med 2022;19:1343-1358.

Culture influences the development of children's gender-related peer preferences: Evidence from China and Thailand.

Current understanding of how culture relates to the development of children's gender-related peer preferences is limited. To investigate the role of societal acceptance of gender nonconformity, this study compared children from China and Thailand. Unlike China and other cultures where the conceptualization of gender as binary is broadly accepted, individuals who identify as a nonbinary "third" sex/gender have been highly visible and tolerated in Thai society for at least several decades. Chinese and Thai 4- to 9-year-olds (N = 458) viewed vignettes of four hypothetical peers who varied on gender (i.e., boy vs. girl) and gender-typed toy play behavior (i.e., masculine vs. feminine), and were asked to give a friendship preference rating for each peer. Chinese, compared with Thai, children evidenced gender-related peer preferences that emerged earlier, remained more stable across age groups, and were relatively more biased against gender-nonconforming behavior. The only cultural similarity was in children's preference for peers who were of the same gender and/or displayed same-gender-typed behavior. Thus, while preference for peers who are of the same gender and/or display same-gender-typed behavior is common among children across cultures, the developmental onset and course of these preferences vary by culture. Moreover, societal acceptance of gender nonconformity might be key to limiting children's bias against gender-nonconforming peers.

Childhood Gender Variance and the Autism Spectrum: Evidence of an Association Using a Child Behavior Checklist 10-Item Autism Screener.

Childhood gender variance (GV) is associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) diagnosis/traits; however, this association has mainly been investigated in clinical samples. An ASD screening measure based on 10 items from the commonly used Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) might enable investigation of this association in a wider variety of (non-clinical) populations where the CBCL and a measure of GV are available. We investigated whether GV in 6- to 12-year-olds (N = 1719; 48.8% assigned male at birth) from a community sample showed an association with the CBCL 10-item ASD screener. The Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children measured GV. The CBCL 10-item ASD screener measured ASD traits. The remaining CBCL items provided a measure of children's general emotional and behavioral challenges. Higher GV was associated with higher CBCL ASD screener scores, including when controlling for the remaining CBCL items. The CBCL 10-item ASD screener can be useful for investigating the link between GV and ASD traits in 6- to 12-year-olds. Given that the CBCL is commonly employed, secondary analyses of existing datasets that also included a measure of GV could enable investigation of how widely the association between GV and ASD applies across a variety of populations.

Evidence for distinct biodevelopmental influences on male sexual orientation.

Several biological mechanisms have been proposed to influence male sexual orientation, but the extent to which these mechanisms cooccur is unclear. Putative markers of biological processes are often used to evaluate the biological basis of male sexual orientation, including fraternal birth order, handedness, and familiality of same-sex sexual orientation; these biomarkers are proxies for immunological, endocrine, and genetic mechanisms. Here, we used latent profile analysis (LPA) to assess whether these biomarkers cluster within the same individuals or are present in different subgroups of nonheterosexual men. LPA defined four profiles of men based on these biomarkers: 1) A subgroup who did not have these biomarkers, 2) fraternal birth order, 3) handedness, and 4) familiality. While the majority of both heterosexual and nonheterosexual men were grouped in the profile that did not have any biomarker, the three profiles associated with a biomarker were composed primarily of nonheterosexual men. We then evaluated whether these subgroups differed on measures of gender nonconformity and personality that reliably show male sexual orientation differences. The subgroup without biomarkers was the most gender-conforming whereas the fraternal birth order subgroup was the most female-typical and agreeable, compared with the other profiles. Together, these findings suggest there are multiple distinct biodevelopmental pathways influencing same-sex sexual orientation in men.

Suicidality in clinic-referred transgender adolescents.

Gender and sexually diverse adolescents have been reported to be at an elevated risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors. For transgender adolescents, there has been variation in source of ascertainment and how suicidality was measured, including the time-frame (e.g., past 6 months, lifetime). In studies of clinic-referred samples of transgender adolescents, none utilized any type of comparison or control group. The present study examined suicidality in transgender adolescents (M age, 15.99 years) seen at specialty clinics in Toronto, Canada, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and London, UK (total N = 2771). Suicidality was measured using two items from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Youth Self-Report (YSR). The CBCL/YSR referred and non-referred standardization samples from both the U.S. and the Netherlands were used for comparative purposes. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that there was significant between-clinic variation in suicidality on both the CBCL and the YSR; in addition, suicidality was consistently higher among birth-assigned females and strongly associated with degree of general behavioral and emotional problems. Compared to the U.S. and Dutch CBCL/YSR standardization samples, the relative risk of suicidality was somewhat higher than referred adolescents but substantially higher than non-referred adolescents. The results were discussed in relation to both gender identity specific and more general risk factors for suicidality.

The Effects of Race, Gender, and Gender-Typed Behavior on Children's Friendship Appraisals.

From a young age, children's peer appraisals are influenced by the social categories to which peers belong based on factors such as race and gender. To date, research regarding the manner in which race- and gender-related factors might interact to influence these appraisals has been limited. The present study employed an experimental vignette paradigm to investigate the relative influences of target peers' race, gender, and gender-typed behavior toward 4- to 6-year-old Chinese children's (N = 119, 62 girls, 57 boys) peer appraisals. Appraisals were assessed via (1) a rating scale measuring children's interest in being friends with a range of hypothetical target peers varying in race, gender, and gender-typed behavior, and (2) a forced-choice rank-order task in which children indicated their preferences for four hypothetical target peers who varied from themselves on either race, gender, or gender-typed behavior, or were similar to themselves on all three traits. There was little evidence to suggest children's rank-ordered peer preferences in relation to race were influenced by whether the other-race presented was White (preferred relatively more) or Black (preferred relatively less). In contrast, gender-related factors (i.e., rater gender, target gender, target gender-typed behavior) had more robust influences on peer preferences for both outcome measures. Gender-conforming peers were preferred over gender-nonconforming peers, and target boys displaying feminine behavior were less preferred than target girls displaying masculine behavior. The results help characterize cross-cultural (in)consistencies in children's social preferences in relation to peers' race and gender.

Examining the Relation Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Well-Being in Children: The Roles of Peers and Parents.

No study to date has simultaneously tested how poor peer relations, generic risk factors, and parental attitudes impact the behavioral and emotional challenges of children who vary in their gender expression. In a community sample, the present study investigated various hypothesized psychosocial and generic risk factors regarding the association between childhood gender nonconformity (GNC) and psychological well-being. Canadian parents/guardians reported on their children aged 6-12 years (N = 1719, 48.8% assigned male at birth) regarding their child's GNC, measured by the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children; behavioral and emotional challenges, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); and peer relations, measured by the CBCL and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. Parent/guardian gender-stereotypical attitudes toward child-rearing were assessed using an adapted version of the Child-Rearing Sex Role Attitude Scale, and attachment between the parent/guardian and child was measured with an adapted version of the Child-Rearing Practices Report. Based on regression analyses, GNC was related to elevated behavioral and emotional challenges, and this association was stronger for those who experienced poor peer relations as well as for those whose parents/guardians endorsed gender-stereotyped attitudes and were less willing to serve as a secure base for the child. Recommendations are provided for ways in which social environments can be altered to improve psychological well-being among gender-nonconforming children.

Male homosexuality and maternal immune responsivity to the Y-linked protein NLGN4Y.

We conducted a direct test of an immunological explanation of the finding that gay men have a greater number of older brothers than do heterosexual men. This explanation posits that some mothers develop antibodies against a Y-linked protein important in male brain development, and that this effect becomes increasingly likely with each male gestation, altering brain structures underlying sexual orientation in their later-born sons. Immune assays targeting two Y-linked proteins important in brain development-protocadherin 11 Y-linked (PCDH11Y) and neuroligin 4 Y-linked (NLGN4Y; isoforms 1 and 2)-were developed. Plasma from mothers of sons, about half of whom had a gay son, along with additional controls (women with no sons, men) was analyzed for male protein-specific antibodies. Results indicated women had significantly higher anti-NLGN4Y levels than men. In addition, after statistically controlling for number of pregnancies, mothers of gay sons, particularly those with older brothers, had significantly higher anti-NLGN4Y levels than did the control samples of women, including mothers of heterosexual sons. The results suggest an association between a maternal immune response to NLGN4Y and subsequent sexual orientation in male offspring.

A method yielding comparable estimates of the fraternal birth order and female fecundity effects in male homosexuality.

The fraternal birth order effect (FBOE) is the finding that older brothers increase the probability of homosexuality in later-born males, and the female fecundity effect (FFE) is the finding that the mothers of homosexual males produce more offspring than the mothers of heterosexual males. In a recent paper, Khovanova proposed a novel method for computing independent estimates of these effects on the same samples and expressing the magnitude and direction of the effects in the same metric. In her procedure, only families with one or two sons are examined, and daughters are ignored. The present study investigated the performance of Khovanova's method using archived data from 10 studies, comprising 14 samples totalling 5390 homosexual and heterosexual subjects. The effect estimate for the FBOE showed that an increase from zero older brothers to one older brother is associated with a 38% increase in the odds of homosexuality. By contrast, the effect estimate for the FFE showed that the increase from zero younger brothers to one younger brother is not associated with any increase in the odds of homosexuality. The former result supports the maternal immune hypothesis of male homosexuality; the latter result does not support the balancing selection hypothesis.

Direct Reproduction and Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity in Thailand.

Human same-sex sexual attraction is considered to be an evolutionary paradox. This paradox rests on same-sex attracted individuals having lowered direct reproduction, indicating reduced direct fitness of genes that influence same-sex attraction. Yet, relatively few empirical studies have examined the relation between same-sex sexual attraction and direct reproduction. The present study examined direct reproduction (i.e., number of children produced) in a diverse Thai sample (N = 1623) of heterosexual men and women, gay and bisexual men, and lesbian and bisexual women, as well as unique Thai gender categories: sao praphet song (i.e., feminine androphilic third-gender males), toms (i.e., masculine gynephilic third-gender females), and dees (i.e., feminine females who are sexually attracted to toms). In males, heterosexual men were more likely to have produced children than other groups, especially as they aged, and none of the gay men or sao praphet song reported having children. In females, there was some degree of reproduction in each of the groups considered. On average, heterosexual and bisexual women had similar numbers of children, whereas heterosexual women had significantly more children than lesbian women, toms, and dees. Number of children was significantly positively associated with age among heterosexual women, bisexual women, toms, and dees. With age, the discrepancies in average number of children produced between heterosexual women and each of lesbian women and toms became significantly more pronounced. Discussion focuses on how these findings, in conjunction with those of prior studies, inform our understanding of evolutionary selection pressures related to human same-sex sexuality.

Handedness and Birth Order Among Heterosexual Men, Gay Men, and Sao Praphet Song in Northern Thailand.

Previous research has examined handedness and birth order to inform sexual orientation and gender identity/role expression development; however, sexual orientation and gender identity/role expression have rarely been disentangled to provide a more nuanced perspective. In Thailand, we investigated sexual orientation and gender identity simultaneously via comparison of 282 heterosexual men, 201 gay men, and 178 sao praphet song-i.e., androphilic, markedly feminine males recognized as a "third" gender. Handedness was examined as: extremely left-handed, moderately left-handed, ambidextrous, moderately right-handed, or extremely right-handed. Birth order was examined as numbers of older and younger brothers and sisters, by using Berglin's, fraternal, and sororal indices, and by examining the older brother odds ratio and sibling sex ratio. Compared with heterosexual men, gay men and sao praphet song were more likely to be extremely right-handed. Sao praphet song were also more likely to be extremely left-handed than heterosexual and gay men. Heterosexual men and sao praphet song had later sororal birth order compared with the expected Thai population value, suggesting stopping rules influenced when probands' mothers ceased having children. These findings provide new insights and replicate previous findings in a non-Western sample. Regarding handedness, in males, mechanisms related to extreme right-handedness likely influence the development of androphilia, whereas mechanisms related to both extreme right- and extreme left-handedness likely explain the combination of androphilia and feminine gender identity/role expression. Regarding birth order, similar to the conclusions of some prior research, stopping rules pose a challenge for testing the fraternal birth order effect.

Children's Appraisals of Gender Nonconformity: Developmental Pattern and Intervention.

Gender-nonconforming (GN) children are often perceived less positively, which may harm their well-being. We examined the development of such perceptions and an intervention to modify them. Chinese children's appraisals were assessed using multiple measures (verbal responses, sharing, and rank order task) after viewing vignettes of gender-conforming (GC) and GN hypothetical peers. In Study 1, children (N = 210; 4-, 5-, 8-, and 9-year-olds) were less positive toward GN than GC peers, especially if they were older or if the peers were boys. In Study 2 (N = 211, 8- and 9-year-olds), showing children exemplars of GN peers who displayed positive and GC characteristics subsequently reduced bias against gender nonconformity. These findings inform strategies aimed at reducing bias against gender nonconformity.

Children's bias in appraisals of gender-variant peers.

Past research suggests that children have biased negative appraisals of gender-variant (GV) peers (i.e., peers who display behaviors/interests that do not align with gender stereotypes). In the current study, Canadian cisgender 4- and 5-year-olds and 8- and 9-year-olds (N = 183; 48.6% girls), who were ethnically diverse (36% White European heritage) and from mostly middle- to upper-income families, viewed vignettes depicting boys and girls as either gender-conforming (GC) or GV. Multiple measures gauged children's appraisals in various domains (i.e., friendship/social preference, popularity, happiness, imitation, and moral judgment). Children's bias against GV peers was modest. Children preferred peers who presented as the same gender and/or with same-gender-typed behaviors/interests. Compared with GC peers, GV peers were rated as less happy, and older children rated a GV boy as less popular. When juxtaposed with a previous study of Hong Kong children that used the same study design, there were several parallels in the patterns observed, but Canadian children had a weaker and less consistent pattern of bias against GV peers than children from Hong Kong. In addition, children from these two cultures showed discrepant patterns for certain aspects of appraisals (e.g., happiness, moral judgment). Overall, these findings inform age-, gender-, and cultural-related influences on children's appraisals of GV peers.

Separation anxiety and gender variance in a community sample of children.

In clinical child and retrospective adult samples, childhood gender variance (GV; i.e., cross-gender behaviour) has been associated with separation anxiety (SA; i.e., distress related to separation from attachment figures) in males. This study examined GV and SA in a nonclinical sample of 892 boys and 933 girls aged 6-12 years via parent-reports. Parental factors (i.e., parenting style, parent-child relationship, willingness to serve as an attachment figure, attitudes towards gender stereotypes in children) were examined as potential moderators. GV predicted SA in boys, even when statistically controlling for general psychopathology and demographic variables. Authoritative parenting, closeness in the parent-child relationship, willingness to serve as an attachment figure, and liberal attitudes towards gender stereotypes in children moderated the association between GV and SA in both boys and girls. Thus, SA may be a unique internalizing problem related to GV in boys in nonclinical samples and influenced by a variety of parental factors.