Symbiotic status alters fungal eco-evolutionary offspring trajectories.

Despite host-fungal symbiotic interactions being ubiquitous in all ecosystems, understanding how symbiosis has shaped the ecology and evolution of fungal spores that are involved in dispersal and colonization of their hosts has been ignored in life-history studies. We assembled a spore morphology database covering over 26,000 species of free-living to symbiotic fungi of plants, insects and humans and found more than eight orders of variation in spore size. Evolutionary transitions in symbiotic status correlated with shifts in spore size, but the strength of this effect varied widely among phyla. Symbiotic status explained more variation than climatic variables in the current distribution of spore sizes of plant-associated fungi at a global scale while the dispersal potential of their spores is more restricted compared to free-living fungi. Our work advances life-history theory by highlighting how the interaction between symbiosis and offspring morphology shapes the reproductive and dispersal strategies among living forms.

Direction of plant-soil feedback determines plant responses to drought.

Droughts exarcerbate Plant-soil feedbacks (PSFs) making positive PSFs more positive and negative PSFs more negative. Alterations in PSFs that droughts induce could relate to the rooting depth of the tested plants. We present some rare evidence on how a driver of global change will alter a biotic interaction.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal root colonization depends on the spatial distribution of the host plants.

Despite their ubiquity in terrestrial ecosystems, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) experience dispersion constraints and thus depend on the spatial distribution of the plant hosts. Our understanding of fungal-plant interactions with respect to their spatial distributions and implications for the functioning of the symbiosis remain limited. We here manipulated the location of habitat patches of Medicago lupulina in two experiments to explore the responses of AMF root colonization and extraradical hyphae. We tested the specific hypothesis that AMF-plant habitats high in connectance would stimulate root colonization and induce denser functional root colonization (colonization rate of arbuscules plus coils) because of higher propagule availability between nearby host plant patches (experiment 1). In experiment 2, we anticipated similar responses in mixed habitats of different soil fertility, namely phosphorus-fertilized or unfertilized soil, and anticipated a higher density of extraradical hyphae in the soil connecting the habitats with increased functional root colonization. In agreement with our hypothesis, we found the highest total and functional root colonization in unfragmented micro-landscapes, describing landscapes that occur within a spatial scale of a few centimeters with the AMF-plant habitats positioned adjacent to each other. In the second experiment, overdispersed micro-landscapes promoted functional root colonization. This study provides experimental evidence that the spatial distribution of habitats can determine AMF abundance at the microscale.

Soil biodiversity enhances the persistence of legumes under climate change.

Global environmental change poses threats to plant and soil biodiversity. Yet, whether soil biodiversity loss can further influence plant community's response to global change is still poorly understood. We created a gradient of soil biodiversity using the dilution-to-extinction approach, and investigated the effects of soil biodiversity loss on plant communities during and following manipulations simulating global change disturbances in experimental grassland microcosms. Grass and herb biomass was decreased by drought and promoted by nitrogen deposition, and a fast recovery was observed following disturbances, independently of soil biodiversity loss. Warming promoted herb biomass during and following disturbance only when soil biodiversity was not reduced. However, legumes biomass was suppressed by these disturbances, and there were more detrimental effects with reduced soil biodiversity. Moreover, soil biodiversity loss suppressed the recovery of legumes following these disturbances. Similar patterns were found for the response of plant diversity. The changes in legumes might be partly attributed to the loss of mycorrhizal soil mutualists. Our study shows that soil biodiversity is crucial for legume persistence and plant diversity maintenance when faced with environmental change, highlighting the importance of soil biodiversity as a potential buffering mechanism for plant diversity and community composition in grasslands.

Soil biota shift with land use change from pristine rainforest and Savannah (Cerrado) to agriculture in southern Amazonia.

Southern Amazonia is currently experiencing extensive land use change from forests to agriculture caused by increased local and global demand for agricultural products. However, little is known about the impacts of deforestation and land use change on soil biota. We investigated two regions in southern Amazonia (rainforest and Savannah/Cerrado biomes), analysing soil biota community turnover based on 16S (Archaea and Bacteria) and 18S rRNA genes (Eukaryotes, including Fungi, Protists and Animalia) and correlating them with soil chemistry and land use intensity. We found that soil biota community structure is driven by land use change in both Cerrado and rainforest. Crop fields approximatively doubled the richness of soil Archaea, Bacteria and Protists. We propose that crop systems not only increase soil pH and fertility, but also create continued disturbance (crop seasons) that stimulates soil diversity, as predicted by the dynamic equilibrium model (DEM) and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). Even though agricultural fields had higher soil biota richness, some taxa were suppressed by agriculture (6/31 operational taxonomic units of Archaea, 245/1790 of Bacteria, 12/74 of Animalia, 20/144 of Fungi and 25/310 of Protists). Consequently, land use change in this region should proceed with caution. In the southern Amazonia region of Brazil, current laws require farmers to keep 20%-80% pristine vegetation areas on their property. Our data support the relevance of this law: since there are unique soil taxa under native vegetation, keeping these pristine areas adjacent to the agricultural fields should maximize soil biodiversity protection in these regions.

Ten simple rules for increased lab resilience.

When running a lab we do not think about calamities, since they are rare events for which we cannot plan while we are busy with the day-to-day management and intellectual challenges of a research lab. No lab team can be prepared for something like a pandemic such as COVID-19, which has led to shuttered labs around the globe. But many other types of crises can also arise that labs may have to weather during their lifetime. What can researchers do to make a lab more resilient in the face of such exterior forces? What systems or behaviors could we adjust in 'normal' times that promote lab success, and increase the chances that the lab will stay on its trajectory? We offer 10 rules, based on our current experiences as a lab group adapting to crisis.

Disentangling the relative importance of spatio-temporal parameters and host specificity in shaping arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus communities in a temperate forest.

Many woody and herbaceous plants in temperate forests cannot establish and survive in the absence of mycorrhizal associations. Most temperate forests are dominated by ectomycorrhizal woody plant species, which implies that the carrying capacity of the habitat for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is relatively low and AMF could in some cases experience a limitation of propagules. Here we address how the AMF community composition varied in a small temperate forest site in Germany in relation to time, space, two plant host species, and also with regard to the degree to which plots were covered with AMF-associating woody species. The AMF communities in our study were non-random. We observed that space had a greater impact on fungal community composition than either time, mycorrhizal state of the close-by woody species, or the identity of the host plant. The identity of the host plant was the only parameter that modified AMF richness in the roots. The set of parameters which we addressed has rarely been studied together, and the resulting ranking could ease prioritizing some of them to be included in future surveys. AMF are crucial for the establishment of understory plants in temperate forests, making it desirable to further explore how they vary in time and space.

Myristate and the ecology of AM fungi: significance, opportunities, applications and challenges.

A recent study by Sugiura and coworkers reported the non-symbiotic growth and spore production of an arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus, Rhizophagus irregularis, when the fungus received an external supply of certain fatty acids, myristates (C:14). This discovery follows the insight that AM fungi receive fatty acids from their hosts when in symbiosis. If this result holds up and can be repeated under nonsterile conditions and with a broader range of fungi, it has numerous consequences for our understanding of AM fungal ecology, from the level of the fungus, at the plant community level, and to functional consequences in ecosystems. In addition, myristate may open up several avenues from a more applied perspective, including improved fungal culture and supplementation of AM fungi or inoculum in the field. We here map these potential opportunities, and additionally offer thoughts on potential risks of this potentially new technology. Lastly, we discuss the specific research challenges that need to be overcome to come to an understanding of the potential role of myristate in AM ecology.

Variance in biomass-allocation fractions is explained by distribution in European trees.

Intraspecific variability in ecological traits confers the ability of a species to adapt to an ever-changing environment. Fractions of biomass allocation in plants (BAFs) represent both ecological traits and direct expressions of investment strategies and so have important implications on plant fitness, particularly under current global change. We combined data on BAFs of trees in > 10 000 forest plots with their distributions in Europe. We aimed to test whether plant species with wider distributions have more or less variable intraspecific variance of the BAFs foliage-woody biomass and shoot-root ratios than species with limited distribution. Irrespective of corrections for tree age and phylogenetic relatedness, the standard deviation in BAFs was up to three times higher in species with the most extensive distributions than in those with the least extensive distribution due to a higher genetic diversity. Variance in BAFs also increased with latitude. We show that a combination of 36% tree genetic diversity and 64% environmental variability explains variance in BAFs and implies that changes in genetic diversity occur quickly. Genetic diversity should thus play a key role in regulating species responses to future climate change. Loss of habitat, even if transient, could induce a loss of genetic diversity and hinder species survival.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Alter the Community Structure of Ammonia Oxidizers at High Fertility via Competition for Soil NH4.

Nitrification represents a central process in the cycling of nitrogen (N) which in high-fertility habitats can occasionally be undesirable. Here, we explore how arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) impacts nitrification when N availability is not limiting to plant growth. We wanted to test which of the mechanisms that have been proposed in the literature best describes how AM influences nitrification. We manipulated the growth settings of Plantago lanceolata so that we could control the mycorrhizal state of our plants. AM induced no changes in the potential nitrification rates or the estimates of ammonium oxidizing (AO) bacteria. However, we could observe a moderate shift in the community of ammonia-oxidizers, which matched the shift we saw when comparing hyphosphere to rhizosphere soil samples and mirrored well changes in the availability of ammonium in soil. We interpret our results as support that it is competition for N that drives the interaction between AM and AO. Our experiment sheds light on an understudied interaction which is pertinent to typical management practices in agricultural systems.

Predictors of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities in the Brazilian Tropical Dry Forest.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are symbiotic fungi with a broad distribution, and many taxa have physiological and ecological adaptations to specific environments, including semiarid ecosystems. Our aim was to address regional distribution patterns of AMF communities in such semiarid environments based on spore morphological techniques. We assessed AMF spores at the bottom and top of inselbergs distributed throughout the tropical dry forest in the Northeast region of Brazil. Across 10 replicate inselbergs and the surrounding area, spanning a range of altitude between 140 and 2000 m, we scored the AMF soil diversity and properties in 52 plots. We fitted parsimonious ordination analyses and variance partitioning models to determine the environmental factors which explained the variation in AMF community, based on morphological spore analysis. The diversity of AMF was similar at the bottom and top of inselbergs; however, we detected high variation in abundance and richness across sites. We formulated a parsimonious richness model that used physical soil factors as predictors. The AMF community structure could be best explained through the variables coarse and total sand, iron, organic matter, potassium, silt, and sodium which together accounted for 17.8% of total variance. Several AMF species were indicators of either deficiency or high values of specific soil properties. We demonstrated that habitat isolation of the inselbergs compared with surrounding areas did not trigger differences in AMF communities in semiarid regions of Brazil. At the regional scale, soil predictors across sites drove the distribution of symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi.

Resilience of Fungal Communities to Elevated CO2.

Soil filamentous fungi play a prominent role in regulating ecosystem functioning in terrestrial ecosystems. This necessitates understanding their responses to climate change drivers in order to predict how nutrient cycling and ecosystem services will be influenced in the future. Here, we provide a quantitative synthesis of ten studies on soil fungal community responses to elevated CO2. Many of these studies reported contradictory diversity responses. We identify the duration of the study as an influential parameter that determines the outcome of experimentation. Our analysis reconciles the existing globally distributed experiments on fungal community responses to elevated CO2 and provides a framework for comparing results of future CO2 enrichment studies.

Relative Importance of Individual Climatic Drivers Shaping Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities.

The physiological tolerance hypothesis (PTH) postulates that it is the tolerance of species to climatic factors that determines overall community richness. Here, we tested whether a group of mutualistic microbes, Glomeromycota, is distributed in semi-arid environments in ways congruent with the PTH. For this purpose, we modeled with climatic predictors the niche of each of the four orders of Glomeromycota and identified predictors of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal operational taxonomic unit (OTU) richness. Our dataset consisted of 50 paired grassland and farmland sites in the farming-pastoral ecotone of northern China. We observed shifts in the relative abundance of AM fungal orders in response to climatic variables but also declines in OTU richness in grassland sites that had experienced high precipitation during the preceding year which was incongruous with the PTH. We found pronounced differences across groups of Glomeromycotan fungi in their responses to climatic variables and identified strong dependencies of AM fungal communities on precipitation. Given that precipitation is expected to further decline in the farming-pastoral ecotone over the coming years and that mycorrhiza represents an integral constituent of ecosystem functioning, it is likely that the ecosystem services in the region will change accordingly.

Land use influences arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities in the farming-pastoral ecotone of northern China.

We performed a landscape-scale investigation to compare the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) communities between grasslands and farmlands in the farming-pastoral ecotone of northern China. AMF richness and community composition were examined with 454 pyrosequencing. Structural equation modelling (SEM) and multivariate analyses were applied to disentangle the direct and indirect effects (mediated by multiple environmental factors) of land use on AMF. Land use conversion from grassland to farmland significantly reduced AMF richness and extraradical hyphal length density, and these land use types also differed significantly in AMF community composition. SEM showed that the effects of land use on AMF richness and hyphal length density in soil were primarily mediated by available phosphorus and soil structural quality. Soil texture was the strongest predictor of AMF community composition. Soil carbon, nitrogen and soil pH were also significantly correlated with AMF community composition, indicating that these abiotic variables could be responsible for some of the community composition differences among sites. Our study shows that land use has a partly predictable effect on AMF communities across this ecologically relevant area of China, and indicates that high soil phosphorus concentrations and poor soil structure are particularly detrimental to AMF in this fragile ecosystem.

Exploring continental-scale stand health - N : P ratio relationships for European forests.

Understanding the relationship between nitrogen (N) availability and stand health in forest ecosystems is crucial, because a large proportion of European forests is subjected to N-deposition levels beyond their retention capacity. We used data from a long-term forest monitoring programme (ICP Forests) to test the relationship between an index of N availability, foliar nitrogen : phosphorus (N : P) ratios, tree defoliation and discoloration. We hypothesized a segmented response of stand health to N : P ratios and an improved model-fit after correcting for climatic covariates. In accordance with the hypothesis, we found a segmented response with a breakpoint for conifer defoliation at N : P ratios as low as 7.3. Inclusion of climatic variables improved the fit of the models, but there was significant collinearity with N : P. Increases in N availability appear, at least for conifers, to have a negative effect on tree health even under N-limiting conditions. Regulation of N-deposition levels is consequently as timely as ever. We propose that increases in tree defoliation, other than resulting in serious plant fitness issues, may represent early diagnostic symptoms of N-addition related imbalances.

Dose-response curves: the next frontier in plant ecology.

A large fraction of experimental work in plant ecology, and thus also on ecosystem functioning and the delivery of ecosystem services, describes experiments that have been carried out under controlled (glasshouse) conditions. Controlled growth settings commonly sacrifice realism through, for example, reducing the densities of plant species in the pots and controlling how environmental settings such as moisture and light vary in favor of a higher mechanistic resolution, which makes these studies particularly suitable for subsequent syntheses. We explore the possibility that further integration of dose-response curves can maximize the impact of existing studies. We suggest that we can expand considerably the scope of the dose and response variables that are considered in plant ecology.