EVALUATION OF MORTALITY CAUSES AND PREVALENCE OF RENAL LESIONS IN ZOO-HOUSED CHAMELEONS: 2011-2022.

Of the 202 species of Chamaeleonidae, 38.6% are globally threatened. Currently, nearly a thousand individual chameleons from 36 different species are kept in zoological institutions worldwide. The objectives of this study were to assess the main mortality causes of chameleons in zoological institutions, the prevalence of renal lesions at necropsy, and the environmental factors associated with renal lesions. An online survey was sent to 245 zoological institutions worldwide to collect information about species and sex distribution, necropsy results, and husbandry parameters. Necropsy reports of the last 10 yr were requested from participating institutions (n = 65) when available. Mortality causes were classified into three categories (open diagnosis, infectious, and noninfectious), and noninfectious causes were further subdivided into seven categories (renal, reproductive, myoarthroskeletal, digestive, ophthalmologic, denutrition/multisystemic, and neoplastic). The prevalence of renal lesions was recorded. Multiple linear regression models were used with the prevalence of renal diseases as the dependent variable, and exhibit minimum and maximum hygrometry; exhibit highest and coolest temperature; as well as minimum, mean, and maximum hygrometry of the geographical area as independent variables, combining all chameleon species with similar environmental requirements. Results were obtained for 14 species (n = 412 individuals). The main mortality causes were infectious (46.8%), noninfectious renal (11.4%), and noninfectious reproductive (10.7%) diseases, with all cases of fatal reproductive diseases reported in females. Of the individuals that underwent renal histopathology, 41.7% displayed renal lesions. There was a tendency towards higher renal lesion prevalence in zoos located in areas with lower mean hygrometry (P = 0.05). Further research studies about infectious, renal, and reproductive diseases of Chamaeleonidae are warranted.

OCCURRENCE OF GERM CELL NEOPLASIA IN MALE STRIPED BASS (MORONE SAXATILIS) UNDER HUMAN CARE IN A PUBLIC AQUARIUM: SURGICAL TREATMENT AND OUTCOME.

The striped bass (Morone saxatilis) has been a fish species of special concern in Canada since its marked decline in the early 21st century in the St. Lawrence River. Individuals kept in public aquaria contribute to public education and could support conservation efforts through research. Over a 3-yr period, 12 male striped bass housed in a multispecies exhibit developed coelomic distension. The testes were enlarged (12/12), cystic (2/12), and heterogeneous (3/12) on coelomic ultrasound. Upon coeliotomy, enlarged (12/12), partially (4/12) or totally white discolored (6/12) testes were noted. These were associated with coelomic hemorrhage (8/12), effusion (3/12) or adhesions to surrounding organs (9/12). Orchiectomies were performed in all fish. Among these, seven fish survived 2 mon postsurgery, and four fish were still alive 900 d postsurgery. Germ cell neoplasia was diagnosed on histopathological examination in 9 of 12 individuals, but no abnormalities were found in the three other cases. Preventive orchiectomies were performed on the remaining six male striped bass in this exhibit. Germ cell neoplasms were present in two of these six fish. No anesthetic or surgical complications were noted; all six cases were alive 2 mon postsurgery and four of the fish survived 900 d postsurgery. Survival times were not significantly different between fish that underwent preventive or curative orchiectomy (P = 0.19). Although risk factors associated with the development of these gonadal tumors remain unknown, a genetic or environmental origin is suspected. Orchiectomy should be considered in suspected cases of testicular tumors.

SEROLOGIC RESPONSE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS OF RECOMBINANT CANINE DISTEMPER VACCINATION IN THREE AQUARIUM-HOUSED WALRUSES (ODOBENUS ROSMARUS).

Fatalities have been associated with phocine and canine distemper viruses in marine mammals, including pinnipeds. No data are available regarding distemper disease or vaccination in walruses. This study evaluates seroconversion and clinical adverse effects following administration of a canarypox-vectored recombinant distemper vaccination (two 1-ml doses, 3 wk apart) in three adult aquarium-housed walruses. Serum antibodies to distemper were measured using seroneutralization on blood samples collected under operant conditioning prior to and for 12 mon after vaccination or until titers were <32. All walruses seroconverted. Medium positive titers (64-128) were detected for 4 to 9.5 mon in two of three individuals. Interindividual variability was noted, with one individual displaying only low positive titers. Major swelling at the site of injection and lameness for a week following injection occurred in all three walruses. Further studies on dosing amount and interval are needed to make vaccine recommendations in this species.

MANAGEMENT OF SUSPECTED DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY WITH PIMOBENDAN IN TWO LEOPARD SHARKS (TRIAKIS SEMIFASCIATA).

Two adult male leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) under managed care were diagnosed with suspected dilated cardiomyopathy. Clinical signs included lethargy, inappetence, and regurgitation. On cardiac ultrasound, fractional shortening was 14% and 10%, respectively (versus 21%-31% in four healthy conspecifics). Ventricular end-diastolic diameter to body weight ratio was 1.72 cm/kg in Case 1 (versus 0.52-1.24 cm/kg in four conspecifics). These results collectively suggested a dilated cardiomyopathy. Treatment was implemented with oral pimobendan at 0.3 mg/kg q48h for 1 mon. The pimobendan dose was increased to 0.5 mg/kg 3/wk, following plasmatic dosage of pimobendan and its metabolite. After 3 mon, fractional shortening increased to 38% and 20%, respectively, sharks regained a normal appetite, and body weight increased by 50% in one individual. After 2 yr, both individuals remained clinically normal, and no adverse effect was noted with pimobendan administration. Pimobendan plasma concentration suggested that this medication was well absorbed in this species.

Determination of Coagulation Parameters by Whole Blood Dynamic Viscoelastic Coagulometry in Strigiformes.

No reference values are available in Strigiformes to evaluate blood coagulation using dynamic viscoelastic coagulometry (DVC) with the Sonoclot (Sienco, Boulder, CO, USA) analyzer. The objectives of this study were 1) to assess the feasibility of DVC in Strigiformes, 2) to calculate the index of individuality of each coagulation parameter, and 3) to assess interspecies variability and establish reference intervals, if relevant, based on the index of individuality. Fresh whole blood samples were obtained from healthy Strigiformes, including 13 barred owls (Strix varia), 10 great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), 6 snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), and 7 eastern screech owls (Megascops asio), and analyzed with DVC with glass bead (gb) and kaolin clay (k) coagulation activators. Activated clotting time (ACT), clot rate (CR), and platelet function were determined immediately after collection using fresh native whole blood. Intraindividual variability was assessed with a second fresh native whole blood sample from 5 barred owls. Interindividual variability was assessed using a Kruskall-Wallis test. For the parameters gbACT (n = 35), gbCR (n = 34), and kACT (n = 27), no significant differences were detected between species (all P ≥ 0.05). Based on low index of individuality, global Strigiformes reference intervals were determined for gbACT (32.3-852.5 seconds; n = 35), gbCR (0-20.1 units/min; n = 29), and kACT (0-1570.3 seconds; n = 27). In conclusion, DVC can be used in Strigiformes and the gb coagulation activator would be more appropriate when basal individual values are not available in a tested individual.

Risk Factors and Prognosis for Humeral Fractures in Birds of Prey: A Retrospective Study of 461 Cases from 2000 to 2015.

The objectives of this retrospective study were 1) to characterize humeral fractures in raptors at a rehabilitation program, 2) to determine risk factors for closed and compound humeral fractures in the raptors, and 3) to investigate prognostic factors for humeral fractures in raptors. Of the 6017 birds of prey admitted over 15 years to the Université de Montréal raptor rehabilitation program, 461 birds presented with a humeral fracture. The highest occurrences of humeral fractures were documented in short-eared owls (33%; Asio flammeus), Northern hawk-owls (24%; Surnia ulula), long-eared owls (20%; Asio otus), and Northern harriers (19%; Circus hudsonius). Humeral fractures were more common in males, and species from the intermediate weight group (300 g to 1 kg) were more likely to have compound humeral fractures than birds from the lower and higher weight groups. Humeral fractures of the middle and distal third of the bone were diagnosed as compound more often than fractures of the proximal third. A correlation between the occurrences of humeral fractures and the relative average width of the humerus for each species was observed and suggests that species with slender humeri have an increased likelihood of compound humeral fractures. Following the triage criteria used at this rehabilitation program, surgical (119 birds) or nonsurgical (77 birds) treatments were attempted. Release rate for birds without concomitant conditions in which a treatment was attempted was 39.3% (59/150) and did not significantly differ between closed and compound fractures, which suggests that the triage criteria used for compound fractures in this program were adequate. Our findings emphasize that raptors should not be systematically euthanatized when presented with compound humeral fractures to a rehabilitation facility.

Outcomes of Birds of Prey with Surgical or Traumatic Wing Amputation: A Retrospective Study from 1995 to 2017.

Surgical amputation of a limb is often required to treat raptor orthopedic injuries at rehabilitation centers. In some cases, amputation is an alternative to euthanasia if the bird's welfare is deemed appropriate under human care. The outcome for raptors maintained in a captive setting following wing amputation is poorly documented. A retrospective study was conducted in a Canadian raptor rehabilitation facility to assess the outcomes and complications observed in captive and free-living raptors with partial or complete, surgical or traumatic amputations of the wing. Data from raptors admitted to the rehabilitation center from 1995 to 2017 were reviewed. Overall, 32 records were included in this retrospective study from 11 species of raptors with surgical or traumatic wing amputations. Survival times of the 23 birds with an amputated wing (median: 1070 days, range: 68 days to 13 years and 1 month) were significantly (P = .02) longer than the survival times of the 404 non-amputated birds (median: 696 days, range 37 days to 27 years and 3 months). Complications occurred in 13 of 30 birds (43%) during the recovery period, with 9 of 30 (30%) birds developing life-threatening complications. Maladaptation to captivity was the leading cause of euthanasia during this period. After placement in captivity, 3/23 (13%) birds developed complications related to the amputation site. Based on this study, we conclude that some birds can tolerate partial or complete wing amputation, but the decision to place a bird in a captive setting should encompass the bird's ability to cope with human interaction and the availability of an adapted and safe enclosure for the animal.

USE OF SYMMETRIC DIMETHYLARGININE TO DETECT RENAL LESIONS IN FISH: A PRELIMINARY STUDY IN BROOK TROUT (SALVELINUS FONTINALIS).

Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an early marker for renal lesions in mammals. The objectives of this study were 1) to establish a reference interval of SDMA in healthy brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill, 1814), and 2) to assess its sensibility as a marker of renal pathology. Plasma SDMA was quantified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in 25 adult brook trout, including 20 fish displaying no renal histologic lesions, and five fish displaying chronic nonactive microscopic granulomas. The fish size (P = 0.30) and weight (P = 0.12) were not statistically different among groups, nor were SDMA values (P = 0.22). However, brook trout without microscopic renal lesions tended to have lower SDMA values (no lesions: mean = 24.9 µg/dL; lesions: mean = 31.4 µg/dL). The reference interval (90% confidence interval [90% CI]) for SDMA concentration in brook trout ranged between 10.0 µg/dL (90% CI: 5.4-14.7) and 39.8 µg/dL (90% CI: 34.8-43.9). These values were higher than those previously reported in other vertebrate species. Further research is needed to evaluate the use of SDMA as a marker of renal function in fishes.

A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC FACTORS INFLUENCING INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE IN BROOK TROUT (SALVELINUS FONTINALIS).

Reference intervals of intraocular pressure (IOP) are poorly described in piscine species as the factors that may influence it. Rebound tonometry was used to measure IOP in 28 adult brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) anesthetized in a buffered solution of 60 mg/L tricaine methanesulfonate (n = 16) or restrained with electronarcosis (n = 12) at 16 mA. There was no significant effect of the eye side, sex, fish origin, and body weight, but IOP values were significantly higher with electronarcosis (mean ± SD: 16.4 ± 5.0 mm Hg) than with immersion anesthesia (10.8 ± 3.3 mm Hg; P = 0.0017). The same restraint method should be used for comparison with previously published IOP values or when evaluating individual variations over time.

PHARMACOKINETIC, PHARMACODYNAMIC, AND TOXICOLOGY STUDY OF ROBENACOXIB IN RAINBOW TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS).

Postoperative antinociception control in fish is currently suboptimal, as commonly used antiinflammatory drugs last for only a few hours at tested temperatures. Therefore, long-acting anti-inflammatory drugs, such as robenacoxib, could improve the welfare of fish. The pharmacokinetics, duration of antinociceptive action, and potential adverse effects of robenacoxib were evaluated through two prospective randomized blinded trials in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Six healthy rainbow trout received a single IM administration of robenacoxib (2 mg/kg), and two control fish received the same volume of saline IM. Blood samples were collected at predetermined time points for 5 d. Plasma robenacoxib concentrations were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution hybrid orbitrap mass spectrometry and noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis. Ten additional rainbow trout received an intralabial injection of 0.05 ml of 2% acetic acid following a previously validated nociceptive model. The treated group (n = 6) received 2 mg/kg of robenacoxib IM and the control group (n = 4) received an equivalent volume of saline IM. The behavior, appetite, and opercular rate of the fish were evaluated every hour for 5 h, then once daily for 3 d. All 12 treated trout and 6 controls underwent histopathologic evaluation. Average maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) was 329.9 ± 137.3 ng/ml observed at 2.1 ± 0.7 h (Tmax) and terminal half-life was 12.6 ± 2.27 h. Plasma concentrations described as antinociceptive in domestic carnivores were measured for 3-4 d. This dose was associated with a significant decrease in rocking behavior (P = 0.017). No adverse effects were detected clinically nor on histopathology. Robenacoxib administered IM at 2 mg/kg appears to be safe and may provide an antinociceptive effect in rainbow trout. This study presents a new therapeutic option to provide long-lasting antinociception in rainbow trout.

Effect of ultraviolet radiation on vertebrate animals: update from ethological and medical perspectives.

Many animals under human care are kept indoors to prevent infectious diseases vectored by wildlife, facilitate environment control, or due to the lifestyle of their owners. However, ultraviolet radiation has documented effects on animal vision, vitamin synthesis, immunity, behavior, psychogenic disorders and on their environment. Ultraviolet-emitting lights are commercially available and the documentation of their effect on indoor-housed animals is increasing. This article reviews published information about ultraviolet effects in vertebrate animals from veterinary and ethological perspectives, and techniques used to assess ultraviolet exposure across animal taxa.

A CLUSTER OF CASES OF THYROID HYPERPLASIA IN AQUARIUM-HOUSED TROPICAL MARINE TELEOSTS FOLLOWING A CHANGE OF SALT MIX BRAND.

Follicular thyroid hyperplasia was diagnosed in nine out of 32 (28%) marine tropical teleosts housed in a public aquarium over a 9.5-mo period. These proliferative lesions were considered to be the cause of death in five of these fish. Iodine concentration was undetectable in nonozonized water (<0.005 mg/L), suggesting that an environmental iodine deficiency was the cause of these hyperplastic thyroid lesions. The only significant modification in the husbandry was a change, 18 mo before the first case, of the commercial salt mix brand used to make artificial seawater. The iodine content in this replacement salt mix was five times lower than that of the salt mix used before. This case series suggests that the iodine concentration in this new salt mix was insufficient to maintain thyroid homeostasis in reef teleosts under the husbandry provided in this institution.

Effect of a Misoprostol/Phenytoin Gel on Experimentally Induced Wounds in Brook Trout-A Preliminary Study.

Topical treatment for wound management in fish is challenging due to their aquatic life. The objective of the present study was to assess the effect of a topical gel containing misoprostol and phenytoin on the healing of skin wounds in Brook Trout Salvelinus fontinalis. Four 16- × 8-mm, full-thickness wounds were created in each trout. Fish were randomly assigned either to the misoprostol/phenytoin group (14 fish) or to the untreated control group (5 fish). In fish from the misoprostol/phenytoin group, two randomly selected wounds were topically treated with a misoprostol/phenytoin gel, while the other two wounds were left without topical treatment. Follow-up and treatment were performed every 5 d for 120 d. Different macroscopic healing indexes were recorded over time, and histological characteristics of each wound were scored at the end of the study. Treatment with misoprostol/phenytoin was associated with delayed epithelialization and wound maturation in comparison with contralateral untreated wounds. The treatment was also associated with lower histological inflammation scores and increased dermal neovascularization. The untreated wounds of fish in the misoprostol/phenytoin group showed delayed maturation and decreased healing speed and had lower inflammation scores and increased neovascularization compared to untreated control wounds. Topical treatment of wounds in Brook Trout with misoprostol/phenytoin gel at the concentration used had a local and systemic deleterious effect on wound healing. The results of the present study do not support the use of this gel at this dosage for the treatment of wounds in Brook Trout.

Release Rates and Complications for Birds of Prey With Antebrachial Fractures at a Veterinary Teaching Hospital.

A retrospective case series that included 253 free-ranging birds of prey admitted to a rehabilitation center was conducted to describe the treatment and outcome of antebrachial fractures. Medical records from birds of prey belonging to 21 species admitted with antebrachial fracture between 1989 and 2015 at the University of California, Davis, were reviewed. Species distribution on admission, treatment, outcome, and complications were described by fracture category and species. Among 134 birds treated after initial triage on the day of admission, 4 bone/ wing categories were identified: 83 birds had an ulnar fracture only; 18 birds had a radial fracture only; 28 birds had a concomitant fracture of the radius and ulna on the same wing; and 5 birds had bilateral antebrachial fractures. Logistic regressions were performed to determine which factors were associated with a positive outcome within each of these 4 categories. Among birds having only an ulnar fracture, those with a closed fracture were significantly more likely to be released than birds with open fractures (P = .03; odds ratio = 5.43, 95% confidence interval: 1.29-28.12). In addition, birds with a fracture of the middle third of the ulna were significantly more likely to be released than birds diagnosed with a single fracture of the proximal third of the ulna (P = .02; odds ratio = 4.54, 95% confidence interval: 1.35-16.64). No significant prognostic factor was detected in other fracture categories.

Ultrasonographic anatomy of reproductive female leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

Captive leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) often present to the exotic clinic for gastrointestinal impactions, follicular stasis, or dystocia. To our knowledge, normal ultrasonographic anatomy of these lizards has not been described. The objectives of this prospective, anatomic, analytical study were to develop ultrasound techniques for this species and to describe the normal sonographic anatomy of the head, coelomic cavity, and tail. Eleven, healthy, female leopard geckos were included. A linear array 13-18 MHz transducer was used. Geckos were sedated and restrained in dorsal recumbency for coelomic structure examination and in ventral recumbency for head and tail examinations. Sagittal and transverse images were acquired and authors recorded qualitative and quantitative ultrasonographic characteristics of anatomic structures. The ventral surface of the lungs, liver, gallbladder, caudal vena cava, portal vein, ventral abdominal vein, aorta, ovarian follicles, fat bodies, tail, and brain were visualized in 10 of 11 individuals. In one individual, molt precluded ultrasonographic examination. The heart, kidneys, urinary bladder, spleen, and pancreas were not visualized. The digestive tract was observed in 10 individuals but was too small to be measured. Findings from the current study could be used as a reference for future studies of leopard geckos.

Evaluation of ß-carotene assimilation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius).

Although leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are commonly kept under human care, their vitamin requirements are largely unknown. Many invertebrate preys display a low vitamin A concentration; thus, gut-loading insects with vitamin A or carotenoids is a common practice. The objective of this prospective experimental study was to investigate whether dietary supplementation with ß-carotene, including prey gut-loading, leads to sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage and prevents epithelial squamous metaplasia development in leopard geckos. Ten clinically healthy female leopard geckos were randomly divided in two groups with various supplementations: a group receiving vitamin A supplementation and a group receiving ß-carotene. Insects were gut-loaded continuously with a supplement containing vitamin A or ß-carotene, depending on the group. Oral supplementation with cod liver oil or carrot juice was administered weekly to each lizard from "vitamin A group" and "carotenoid group" respectively. After 10 weeks of supplementation, surgical hepatic biopsies were obtained in three geckos of each group while the two remaining geckos were euthanized to undergo complete necropsy. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was determined for each lizard (n = 10) by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Histopathology revealed hepatocellular vacuolization and vitellogenic follicles in five females. Epithelial squamous metaplasia was not observed in any of the geckos. Hepatic vitamin A concentration was significantly higher in the carotenoid-supplemented group than in the vitamin A-supplemented group (p = 0.03). Our results suggest that in leopard geckos, dietary supplementation with ß-carotene allows sufficient vitamin A hepatic storage.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THORACIC RADIOGRAPHIC FINDINGS AND POSTMORTEM DIAGNOSIS OF THORACIC DISEASES IN DYSPNEIC COMPANION RATS (RATTUS NORVEGICUS).

Companion rats are often presented to veterinarians for respiratory difficulties. Dyspnea in rats is most commonly due to infectious pneumonia, and thoracic neoplasia can go undiagnosed ante mortem due to a mistaken interpretation of pneumonia. In domestic carnivores, pulmonary nodular patterns have been shown to correlate with lung neoplastic diseases and infectious diseases. The main objective of this retrospective case series study was to determine whether certain radiographic criteria could be correlated with the presence of thoracic infectious disease and neoplastic disease in companion rats. A secondary objective was to determine whether the patient's sex and age were different between rats diagnosed with infectious versus neoplastic disease. Medical records and thoracic radiographs of dyspneic companion rats presented to the University of California at Davis, William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital during the time period from January 2000 to December 2014 were reviewed. Rats with postmortem confirmation of thoracic lesions were included in the study. Thoracic radiographs were evaluated for positioning, lesion distribution, lung lobe involved, pulmonary pattern, mediastinal and pleural lesions by three observers blinded to diagnosis. Thirty rats were included in the study, including 23 rats with an infectious disease and seven with neoplasia. Mediastinal lesions were significantly more prevalent in the group diagnosed with thoracic neoplasia (P = 0.031), in particular cranially (P = 0.048). Although there was an overlap between the two groups, findings indicated that the presence of cranial mediastinal lesions may be helpful for differentiating neoplastic from infectious disease in rats.

Hematologic, Plasma Biochemical, and Lipid Panel Reference Intervals in Orange-winged Amazon Parrots ( Amazona amazonica ).

To establish reference intervals in orange-winged Amazon parrots ( Amazona amazonica ) for the complete blood count, plasma biochemical values, and lipid panel and to evaluate age- and sex-related variations, blood samples were obtained from 29 healthy juvenile and adult parrots. Concentrations of total protein, bile acids, phosphorus, total cholesterol, low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were significantly higher in adult compared with juvenile birds, while uric acid concentration was significantly higher in juveniles. The white blood cell count, lymphocyte count, and phosphorus and potassium concentrations were significantly higher in females, while chloride concentration was significantly higher in males. In this species, direct measurement of LDL-C resulted in lower concentrations than LDL-C calculated with the Friedewald formula. Assessment of the agreement between the calculated and measured LDL-C concentrations indicated a systematic bias of 19.1 mg/dL and a proportional bias of 1.07. A correction factor of -19 mg/L could be applied to the Friedewald formula, to obtain a result closer to the measured LDL-C, providing clinically acceptable (<20% difference) agreement in 66% of the samples. Triglyceride concentrations within the range measured in healthy birds of the present study did not significantly affect the bias between calculated and directly measured LDL-C. Further studies are needed to investigate the impact of nutritional factors, genetics, and exercise on biochemistry and lipoprotein panel analytes in orange-winged Amazon parrots.

Use of a shuttle box model to assess the behavioral and analgesic effects of opioid injections in goldfish (Carassius auratus).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate if opioid-induced behavioral effects, such as sedation, can be detected using a shuttle box experimental apparatus and whether thermal preference following noxious stimulation using mustard oil is reversed by morphine administration in fish. METHODS: 5 goldfish (Carassius auratus) underwent 2 randomized blinded experimental trials, with a crossover study design. First, opioid effects were tested in a shuttle box without painful stimulus. Fish were injected 5 days apart with butorphanol at 0.4 or 10 mg/kg, morphine at 5 or 10 mg/kg, or saline IM. After 30 minutes, each fish was placed in a shuttle box for 2 hours with a temperature gradient of 26 to 28 °C. Temperature preference, time spent immobile, and swimming velocity were assessed. The second trial consisted of cutaneous noxious stimulation using mustard oil immersion for 5 minutes followed by an assessment of thermal preference for 4 minutes in the shuttle box after either morphine at 10 mg/kg or saline IM injections. Linear mixed models were used to compare treatment groups. RESULTS: Before noxious stimulation, a low dose of morphine caused sedation compared with control group and high-dose morphine and butorphanol treatments. Immersion in mustard oil caused fish to spend more time in the cold area in the control group. Morphine administration reversed this pattern. CONCLUSIONS: The sedative and analgesic effects of opioids were detected through this model. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The shuttle box model could be used to assess the analgesic effects of other opioids in goldfish while reducing biases associated with the sedative and stimulatory effects of these drugs.

Legislative Differences Governing Exotic Animal Practice.

Laws regulating exotic animal ownership vary throughout the world. While some differences regarding the legal status and use of exotic companion animals are associated with cultural differences and public perception, some differences may result in different outcome, which could be of interest for other parts of the world. This article provides a general overview of relevant laws pertaining to exotic companion animals in certain developed countries.