Identification of Metabolomic Markers in Frozen or Formalin-Fixed and Paraffin-Embedded Samples of Diffuse Glioma from Adults.

The aim of this study was to identify metabolomic signatures associated with the gliomagenesis pathway (IDH-mutant or IDH-wt) and tumor grade of diffuse gliomas (DGs) according to the 2021 WHO classification on frozen samples and to evaluate the diagnostic performances of these signatures in tumor samples that are formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE). An untargeted metabolomic study was performed using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry on a cohort of 213 DG samples. Logistic regression with LASSO penalization was used on the frozen samples to build classification models in order to identify IDH-mutant vs. IDH-wildtype DG and high-grade vs low-grade DG samples. 2-Hydroxyglutarate (2HG) was a metabolite of interest to predict IDH mutational status and aminoadipic acid (AAA) and guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) were significantly associated with grade. The diagnostic performances of the models were 82.6% AUC, 70.6% sensitivity and 80.4% specificity for 2HG to predict IDH status and 84.7% AUC, 78.1% sensitivity and 73.4% specificity for AAA and GAA to predict grade from FFPE samples. Thus, this study showed that AAA and GAA are two novel metabolites of interest in DG and that metabolomic data can be useful in the classification of DG, both in frozen and FFPE samples.

Changes in chromatin state reveal ARNT2 at a node of a tumorigenic transcription factor signature driving glioblastoma cell aggressiveness.

Although a growing body of evidence indicates that phenotypic plasticity exhibited by glioblastoma cells plays a central role in tumor development and post-therapy recurrence, the master drivers of their aggressiveness remain elusive. Here we mapped the changes in active (H3K4me3) and repressive (H3K27me3) histone modifications accompanying the repression of glioblastoma stem-like cells tumorigenicity. Genes with changing histone marks delineated a network of transcription factors related to cancerous behavior, stem state, and neural development, highlighting a previously unsuspected association between repression of ARNT2 and loss of cell tumorigenicity. Immunohistochemistry confirmed ARNT2 expression in cell sub-populations within proliferative zones of patients' glioblastoma. Decreased ARNT2 expression was consistently observed in non-tumorigenic glioblastoma cells, compared to tumorigenic cells. Moreover, ARNT2 expression correlated with a tumorigenic molecular signature at both the tissue level within the tumor core and at the single cell level in the patients' tumors. We found that ARNT2 knockdown decreased the expression of SOX9, POU3F2 and OLIG2, transcription factors implicated in glioblastoma cell tumorigenicity, and repressed glioblastoma stem-like cell tumorigenic properties in vivo. Our results reveal ARNT2 as a pivotal component of the glioblastoma cell tumorigenic signature, located at a node of a transcription factor network controlling glioblastoma cell aggressiveness.

A Positive Feed-forward Loop Associating EGR1 and PDGFA Promotes Proliferation and Self-renewal in Glioblastoma Stem Cells.

Glioblastomas are the most common primary brain tumors, highly vascularized, infiltrating, and resistant to current therapies. This cancer leads to a fatal outcome in less than 18 months. The aggressive behavior of glioblastomas, including resistance to current treatments and tumor recurrence, has been attributed to glioma stemlike/progenitor cells. The transcription factor EGR1 (early growth response 1), a member of a zinc finger transcription factor family, has been described as tumor suppressor in gliomas when ectopically overexpressed. Although EGR1 expression in human glioblastomas has been associated with patient survival, its precise location in tumor territories as well as its contribution to glioblastoma progression remain elusive. In the present study, we show that EGR1-expressing cells are more frequent in high grade gliomas where the nuclear expression of EGR1 is restricted to proliferating/progenitor cells. We show in primary cultures of glioma stemlike cells that EGR1 contributes to stemness marker expression and proliferation by orchestrating a PDGFA-dependent growth-stimulatory loop. In addition, we demonstrate that EGR1 acts as a positive regulator of several important genes, including SHH, GLI1, GLI2, and PDGFA, previously linked to the maintenance and proliferation of glioma stemlike cells.

A driver role for GABA metabolism in controlling stem and proliferative cell state through GHB production in glioma.

Cell populations with differing proliferative, stem-like and tumorigenic states co-exist in most tumors and especially malignant gliomas. Whether metabolic variations can drive this heterogeneity by controlling dynamic changes in cell states is unknown. Metabolite profiling of human adult glioblastoma stem-like cells upon loss of their tumorigenicity revealed a switch in the catabolism of the GABA neurotransmitter toward enhanced production and secretion of its by-product GHB (4-hydroxybutyrate). This switch was driven by succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) downregulation. Enhancing GHB levels via SSADH downregulation or GHB supplementation triggered cell conversion into a less aggressive phenotypic state. GHB affected adult glioblastoma cells with varying molecular profiles, along with cells from pediatric pontine gliomas. In all cell types, GHB acted by inhibiting α-ketoglutarate-dependent Ten-eleven Translocations (TET) activity, resulting in decreased levels of the 5-hydroxymethylcytosine epigenetic mark. In patients, low SSADH expression was correlated with high GHB/α-ketoglutarate ratios, and distinguished weakly proliferative/differentiated glioblastoma territories from proliferative/non-differentiated territories. Our findings support an active participation of metabolic variations in the genesis of tumor heterogeneity.

Tumorigenic potential of miR-18A* in glioma initiating cells requires NOTCH-1 signaling.

Stem cell-like properties of glioma initiating cells (GiCs) fuel glioblastoma (GBM) development by providing the different cell types that comprise the tumor. It is therefore likely that the molecular circuitries that regulate their decision to self-renew or commit to a more differentiated state may offer targets for future innovative therapies. In previous micro-RNA profiling studies to search for regulators of stem cell plasticity, we identified miR-18a* as a potential candidate and its expression correlated with the stemness state. Here, using human GiCs we found that miR-18a* expression promotes clonal proliferation in vitro and tumorigenicity in vivo. Mechanistically, ERK-dependent induction of miR-18a* directly represses expression of DLL3, an autocrine inhibitor of NOTCH, thus enhancing the level of activated NOTCH-1. Activated NOTCH-1 in turn is required for sustained ERK activation. This feed-forward loop, driven by miR-18a*, is required to turn on the SHH-GLI-NANOG network, essential for GiC self-renewal. Hence, by tightly regulating expression of DLL3, miR-18a* constitutes an important signaling mediator for fine tuning the level of GiC self-renewal.

CELF2 Sustains a Proliferating/OLIG2+ Glioblastoma Cell Phenotype via the Epigenetic Repression of SOX3.

Glioblastomas (GBs) are incurable brain tumors. The persistence of aggressive stem-like tumor cells after cytotoxic treatments compromises therapeutic efficacy, leading to GBM recurrence. Forcing the GBM cells to irreversibly abandon their aggressive stem-like phenotype may offer an alternative to conventional cytotoxic treatments. Here, we show that the RNA binding protein CELF2 is strongly expressed in mitotic and OLIG2-positive GBM cells, while it is downregulated in differentiated and non-mitotic cells by miR-199a-3p, exemplifying GBM intra-tumor heterogeneity. Using patient-derived cells and human GBM samples, we demonstrate that CELF2 plays a key role in maintaining the proliferative/OLIG2 cell phenotype with clonal and tumorigenic properties. Indeed, we show that CELF2 deficiency in patient-derived GSCs drastically reduced tumor growth in the brains of nude mice. We further show that CELF2 promotes TRIM28 and G9a expression, which drive a H3K9me3 epigenetic profile responsible for the silencing of the SOX3 gene. Thus, CELF2, which is positively correlated with OLIG2 and Ki67 expression in human GBM samples, is inversely correlated with SOX3 and miR-199a-3p. Accordingly, the invalidation of SOX3 in CELF2-deficient patient-derived cells rescued proliferation and OLIG2 expression. Finally, patients expressing SOX3 above the median level of expression tend to have a longer life expectancy. CELF2 is therefore a crucial target for the malignant potential of GBM and warrants attention when developing novel anticancer strategies.

Structure-Based Design of a Lead Compound Derived from Natural Schweinfurthins with Antitumor Properties That Target Oxysterol-Binding Protein.

Schweinfurthins (SWs) are naturally occurring prenylated stilbenes with promising anticancer properties. They act through a novel mechanism of action similar to that of other families of natural compounds. Their known target, oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP), plays a crucial role in controlling the intracellular distribution of cholesterol. We synthesized 15 analogues of SWs and demonstrated for the first time that their cytotoxicity as well as that of natural derivatives correlates with their affinity for OSBP. Through this extensive SAR study, we selected one synthetic analogue obtained in one step from SW-G. Using its fluorescence properties, we showed that this compound recapitulates the effect of natural SW-G in cells and confirmed that it leads to cell death via the same mechanism. Finally, after pilot PK experiments, we provided the first evidence of its in vivo efficacy in combination with temozolomide in a patient-derived glioblastoma xenograft model.

Mitochondria Transfer from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Confers Chemoresistance to Glioblastoma Stem Cells through Metabolic Rewiring.

Glioblastomas (GBM) are heterogeneous tumors with high metabolic plasticity. Their poor prognosis is linked to the presence of glioblastoma stem cells (GSC), which support resistance to therapy, notably to temozolomide (TMZ). Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) recruitment to GBM contributes to GSC chemoresistance, by mechanisms still poorly understood. Here, we provide evidence that MSCs transfer mitochondria to GSCs through tunneling nanotubes, which enhances GSCs resistance to TMZ. More precisely, our metabolomics analyses reveal that MSC mitochondria induce GSCs metabolic reprograming, with a nutrient shift from glucose to glutamine, a rewiring of the tricarboxylic acid cycle from glutaminolysis to reductive carboxylation and increase in orotate turnover as well as in pyrimidine and purine synthesis. Metabolomics analysis of GBM patient tissues at relapse after TMZ treatment documents increased concentrations of AMP, CMP, GMP, and UMP nucleotides and thus corroborate our in vitro analyses. Finally, we provide a mechanism whereby mitochondrial transfer from MSCs to GSCs contributes to GBM resistance to TMZ therapy, by demonstrating that inhibition of orotate production by Brequinar (BRQ) restores TMZ sensitivity in GSCs with acquired mitochondria. Altogether, these results identify a mechanism for GBM resistance to TMZ and reveal a metabolic dependency of chemoresistant GBM following the acquisition of exogenous mitochondria, which opens therapeutic perspectives based on synthetic lethality between TMZ and BRQ. Significance: Mitochondria acquired from MSCs enhance the chemoresistance of GBMs. The discovery that they also generate metabolic vulnerability in GSCs paves the way for novel therapeutic approaches.

Challenges in glioblastoma research: focus on the tumor microenvironment.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most deadly type of malignant brain tumor, despite extensive molecular analyses of GBM cells. In recent years, the tumor microenvironment (TME) has been recognized as an important player and therapeutic target in GBM. However, there is a need for a full and integrated understanding of the different cellular and molecular components involved in the GBM TME and their interactions for the development of more efficient therapies. In this review, we provide a comprehensive report of the GBM TME, which assembles the contributions of physicians and translational researchers working on brain tumor pathology and therapy in France. We propose a holistic view of the subject by delineating the specific features of the GBM TME at the cellular, molecular, and therapeutic levels.

Glioblastoma cell motility depends on enhanced oxidative stress coupled with mobilization of a sulfurtransferase.

Cell motility is critical for tumor malignancy. Metabolism being an obligatory step in shaping cell behavior, we looked for metabolic weaknesses shared by motile cells across the diverse genetic contexts of patients' glioblastoma. Computational analyses of single-cell transcriptomes from thirty patients' tumors isolated cells with high motile potential and highlighted their metabolic specificities. These cells were characterized by enhanced mitochondrial load and oxidative stress coupled with mobilization of the cysteine metabolism enzyme 3-Mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (MPST). Functional assays with patients' tumor-derived cells and -tissue organoids, and genetic and pharmacological manipulations confirmed that the cells depend on enhanced ROS production and MPST activity for their motility. MPST action involved protection of protein cysteine residues from damaging hyperoxidation. Its knockdown translated in reduced tumor burden, and a robust increase in mice survival. Starting from cell-by-cell analyses of the patients' tumors, our work unravels metabolic dependencies of cell malignancy maintained across heterogeneous genomic landscapes.

EGFR immunolabeling pattern may discriminate low-grade gliomas from gliosis.

Overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is common in gliomas. Gliomas are infiltrating tumors in which neoplastic glial cells can be intermingled with reactive glial cells, particularly in diffuse low-grade gliomas. As overexpression of EGFR has also been described in gliosis, it can be difficult to evaluate EGFR immunolabeling in diffuse low-grade gliomas because of this cell mix. We compared EGFR immunolabeling between gliosis and low-grade gliomas in order to identify distinctive criteria. We studied EGFR expression in 28 cases of gliosis and 39 diffuse low-grade gliomas (23 astrocytomas and 16 oligodendrogliomas). EGFR immunohistochemistry staining was performed on paraffin-embedded sections with a mouse monoclonal antibody (clone 2-18C9; Dako). Co-expression of EGFR with Olig2, Mib-1, and p53 was assessed in seven cases of low-grade gliomas using double immunolabeling. Then, EGFR immunostaining was blindly tested on 22 small specimens of indeterminate glial lesions provided by a reference neuropathological center. Two pathologists of our local center were asked to classify the lesions into diffuse low-grade glioma or gliosis according to the pattern of EGFR expression. Weak expression of EGFR was commonly detected in gliosis (23/28 cases). Strongly-stained cells were absent. Positive cells had reactive glial cell morphology. EGFR expression in gliomas was characterized by constant strongly-stained cells (39/39 cases). All strongly-stained cells had a high nucleus-to-cytoplasm ratio, with minimal to moderate nuclear atypia. Most of the strongly EGFR-positive cells were Olig2-positive. All the cases displayed cells co-expressing EGFR and Mib-1. In three p53-positive tumors, many p53-positive cells were strongly EGFR-positive. On the basis of EGFR expression, 14 out of the 22 indeterminate cases were classified as gliomas and eight as gliosis by both pathologists. Concordance with the initial diagnosis established by the reference center and concordance between the pathologists were 100%. Our results confirm that weak EGFR expression can be detected by immunohistochemistry in gliosis. They show that strong EGFR expression may be specific for neoplastic glial cells. As all low-grade gliomas contained strongly-stained cells in our study, we believe that EGFR immunohistochemistry could be a useful tool for detection of neoplastic glial cells in case of indeterminate glial lesions.

SETMAR Shorter Isoform: A New Prognostic Factor in Glioblastoma.

Recent evidence suggests that the chimeric protein SETMAR is a factor of interest in cancer, especially in glioblastoma. However, little is known about the expression of this protein in glioblastoma tissues, and no study has been done to assess if SETMAR could be a prognostic and/or diagnostic marker of glioblastoma. We analyzed protein extracts of 47 glioblastoma samples coming from a local and a national cohort of patients. From the local cohort, we obtained localized biopsies from the central necrosis area, the tumor, and the perilesional brain. From the French Glioblastoma Biobank (FGB), we obtained three types of samples: from the same tumors before and after treatment, from long survivors, and from very short survivors. We studied the correlations between SETMAR amounts, clinical profiles of patients and other associated proteins (PTN, snRNP70 and OLIG2). In glioblastoma tissues, the shorter isoform of SETMAR (S-SETMAR) was predominant over the full-length isoform (FL-SETMAR), and the expression of both SETMAR variants was higher in the tumor compared to the perilesional tissues. Data from the FGB showed that SETMAR amounts were not different between the initial tumors and tumor relapses after treatment. These data also showed a trend toward higher amounts of S-SETMAR in long survivors. In localized biopsies, we found a positive correlation between good prognosis and large amounts of S-SETMAR in the perilesional area. This is the main result presented here: survival in Glioblastoma is correlated with amounts of S-SETMAR in perilesional brain, which should be considered as a new relevant prognosis marker.

Embryonic stem cells as an ectodermal cellular model of human p63-related dysplasia syndromes.

Heterozygous mutations in the TP63 transcription factor underlie the molecular basis of several similar autosomal dominant ectodermal dysplasia (ED) syndromes. Here we provide a novel cellular model derived from embryonic stem (ES) cells that recapitulates in vitro the main steps of embryonic skin development. We show that ES cells carrying AEC or EEC mutations are unable to differentiate into the epidermal fate. Comparative transcriptome analysis strongly reveals an embryonic epidermal signature and suggests that mutations in the SAM domain (AEC) provide activating properties while mutations in the DBD domain (EEC) induce strong inhibitory capabilities. Our model uncovers the effect of relevant ED mutations that otherwise are difficult to evaluate on the ectodermal embryonic stage, an embryonic event critical for proper skin formation.

Development of human nervous tissue upon differentiation of embryonic stem cells in three-dimensional culture.

Researches on neural differentiation using embryonic stem cells (ESC) require analysis of neurogenesis in conditions mimicking physiological cellular interactions as closely as possible. In this study, we report an air-liquid interface-based culture of human ESC. This culture system allows three-dimensional cell expansion and neural differentiation in the absence of added growth factors. Over a 3-month period, a macroscopically visible, compact tissue developed. Histological coloration revealed a dense neural-like neural tissue including immature tubular structures. Electron microscopy, immunochemistry, and electrophysiological recordings demonstrated a dense network of neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes able to propagate signals. Within this tissue, tubular structures were niches of cells resembling germinal layers of human fetal brain. Indeed, the tissue contained abundant proliferating cells expressing markers of neural progenitors. Finally, the capacity to generate neural tissues on air-liquid interface differed for different ESC lines, confirming variations of their neurogenic potential. In conclusion, this study demonstrates in vitro engineering of a human neural-like tissue with an organization that bears resemblance to early developing brain. As opposed to previously described methods, this differentiation (a) allows three-dimensional organization, (b) yields dense interconnected neural tissue with structurally and functionally distinct areas, and (c) is spontaneously guided by endogenous developmental cues.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1{alpha} is a new target of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) in melanoma cells.

In melanocytes and melanoma cells alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH), via the cAMP pathway, elicits a large array of biological responses that control melanocyte differentiation and influence melanoma development or susceptibility. In this work, we show that cAMP transcriptionally activates Hif1a gene in a melanocyte cell-specific manner and increases the expression of a functional hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (HIF1alpha) protein resulting in a stimulation of Vegf expression. Interestingly, we report that the melanocyte-specific transcription factor, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), binds to the Hif1a promoter and strongly stimulates its transcriptional activity. Further, MITF "silencing" abrogates the cAMP effect on Hif1a expression, and overexpression of MITF in human melanoma cells is sufficient to stimulate HIF1A mRNA. Our data demonstrate that Hif1a is a new MITF target gene and that MITF mediates the cAMP stimulation of Hif1a in melanocytes and melanoma cells. Importantly, we provide results demonstrating that HIF1 plays a pro-survival role in this cell system. We therefore conclude that the alpha-MSH/cAMP pathway, using MITF as a signal transducer and HIF1alpha as a target, might contribute to melanoma progression.

ERK-Mediated Loss of miR-199a-3p and Induction of EGR1 Act as a "Toggle Switch" of GBM Cell Dedifferentiation into NANOG- and OCT4-Positive Cells.

There is great interest in understanding how the cancer stem cell population may be maintained in solid tumors. Here, we show that tumor cells exhibiting stem-like properties and expression of pluripotency markers NANOG and OCT4 can arise from original differentiated tumor cells freshly isolated from human glioblastomas (GBM) and that have never known any serum culture conditions. Induction of EGR1 by EGFR/ERK signaling promoted cell conversion from a less aggressive, more differentiated cellular state to a self-renewing and strongly tumorigenic state, expressing NANOG and OCT4. Expression of these pluripotency markers occurred before the cells re-entered the cell cycle, demonstrating their capacity to change and dedifferentiate without any cell divisions. In differentiated GBM cells, ERK-mediated repression of miR-199a-3p induced EGR1 protein expression and triggered dedifferentiation. Overall, this signaling pathway constitutes an ERK-mediated "toggle switch" that promotes pluripotency marker expression and stem-like features in GBM cells. SIGNIFICANCE: This study defines an ERK-mediated molecular mechanism of dedifferentiation of GBM cells into a stem-like state, expressing markers of pluripotency.See related commentary by Koncar and Agnihotri, p. 3195.

Extracellular adenosine promotes cell migration/invasion of Glioblastoma Stem-like Cells through A3 Adenosine Receptor activation under hypoxia.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the brain tumor with the worst prognosis composed of a cell subpopulation called Glioblastoma Stem-like Cells (GSCs) responsible for tumor recurrence mediated by cell invasion. GSCs persist in a hypoxic microenvironment which promotes extracellular adenosine production and activation of the A3 Adenosine Receptor (A3AR), therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the role of extracellular adenosine and A3AR on GSCs invasion under hypoxia. GSCs were obtained from a U87MG cell line and primary cultures of GBM patients, and then incubated under normoxia or hypoxia. Gene expression was evaluated by RNAseq, RT-qPCR, and western blot. Cell migration was measured by spreading and transwell boyden chamber assays; cell invasion was evaluated by Matrigel-coated transwell, ex vivo brain slice, and in vivo xenograft assays. The contribution of A3AR on cell migration/invasion was evaluated using the A3AR antagonist, MRS1220. Extracellular adenosine production was higher under hypoxia than normoxia, mainly by the catalytic action of the prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP), promoting cell migration/invasion in a HIF-2-dependent process. A3AR blockade decreased cell migration/invasion and the expression of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition markers. In conclusion, high levels of extracellular adenosine production enhance cell migration/invasion of GSCs, through HIF-2/PAP-dependent activation of A3AR under hypoxia.

Cell-based therapy using miR-302-367 expressing cells represses glioblastoma growth.

Glioblastomas are incurable primary brain tumors that affect patients of all ages. The aggressiveness of this cancer has been attributed in part to the persistence of treatment-resistant glioblastoma stem-like cells. We have previously discovered the tumor-suppressor properties of the microRNA cluster miR-302-367, representing a potential treatment for glioblastoma. Here, we attempted to develop a cell-based therapy by taking advantage of the capability of glioma cells to secrete exosomes that enclose small RNA molecules. We engineered primary glioma cells to stably express the miR-302-367. Remarkably, these cells altered, in a paracrine-dependent manner, the expression of stemness markers, the proliferation and the tumorigenicity of neighboring glioblastoma cells. Further characterization of the secretome derived from miR-302-367 expressing cells showed that a large amount of miR-302-367 was enclosed in exosomes, which were internalized by the neighboring glioblastoma cells. This miR-302-367 cell-to-cell transfer resulted in the inhibition of its targets such as CXCR4/SDF1, SHH, cyclin D, cyclin A and E2F1. Orthotopic xenograft of miR-302-367-expressing cells together with glioblastoma stem-like cells efficiently altered the tumor development in mice brain.

[18F] FDOPA standardized uptake values of brain tumors are not exclusively dependent on LAT1 expression.

[18F]-FDOPA is a labeled amino acid (AA) analog used for positron emission tomography (PET) which is gaining increasing interest in the evaluation of brain tumors (BT). The AA-transporter LAT1 has been shown to be involved in [18F]-FDOPA uptake. The aim of this study was to determine whether the [18F]-FDOPA uptake was correlated with level of LAT1 expression in BT. Twenty-eight BT (including 19 gliomas and 9 metastases) were investigated by [18F]-FDOPA-PET prior to surgery and by anti-LAT1 immunohistochemistry on surgical specimens. The quantitative [18F]-FDOPA measured parameters were SUVmax, SUVmean and SUVpeak. LAT1 expression was quantified using a score (0 to 400). A significant [18F]-FDOPA uptake was associated with a LAT1 score ≥ 100 (p = 0.02) but there was no linear correlation between intensity of [18F]-FDOPA uptake and score of LAT1 expression whatever the parameters considered. LAT1 expression alone is not sufficient to explain variation of intensity of [18F]-FDOPA uptake in BT.