A nonnative and a native fungal plant pathogen similarly stimulate ectomycorrhizal development but are perceived differently by a fungal symbiont.

The effects of plant symbionts on host defence responses against pathogens have been extensively documented, but little is known about the impact of pathogens on the symbiosis and if such an impact may differ for nonnative and native pathogens. Here, this issue was addressed in a study of the model system comprising Pinus pinea, its ectomycorrhizal symbiont Tuber borchii, and the nonnative and native pathogens Heterobasidion irregulare and Heterobasidion annosum, respectively. In a 6-month inoculation experiment and using both in planta and gene expression analyses, we tested the hypothesis that H. irregulare has greater effects on the symbiosis than H. annosum. Although the two pathogens induced the same morphological reaction in the plant-symbiont complex, with mycorrhizal density increasing exponentially with pathogen colonization of the host, the number of target genes regulated in T. borchii in plants inoculated with the native pathogen (i.e. 67% of tested genes) was more than twice that in plants inoculated with the nonnative pathogen (i.e. 27% of genes). Although the two fungal pathogens did not differentially affect the amount of ectomycorrhizas, the fungal symbiont perceived their presence differently. The results may suggest that the symbiont has the ability to recognize a self/native and a nonself/nonnative pathogen, probably through host plant-mediated signal transduction.

Phylogenetic overview of the genus Genea (Pezizales, Ascomycota) with an emphasis on European taxa.

We constructed a comprehensive phylogeny of the genus Genea, with new molecular data from samples collected in several countries in temperate and Mediterranean Europe, as well as North America. Type specimens and authentic material of most species were examined to support identifications. The molecular identity of the most common species in Genea was compared with nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS), D1-D2 domains of 28S nuc rDNA (28S rDNA) and translation elongation factor 1-α ene (TEF1) profiles of 10 recently proposed taxa, G. brunneocarpa, G. compressa, G. dentata, G. fageticola, G. lobulata, G. oxygala, G. pinicola, G. pseudobalsleyi, G. pseudoverrucosa and G. tuberculata, supporting their status as distinct species. Genea mexicana and G. thaxteri on the one hand and G. sphaerica and G. lespiaultii on the other are closely related. Multiple lineages were recorded for G. verrucosa and G. fragrans, but we found no morphological traits to discriminate among them, so we tentatively interpreted them as cryptic species. A key to species of the genus Genea is provided to facilitate identification. We provide macroscopic images of fresh specimens and of representative spores of most species. Finally, we conducted a molecular analysis of the divergence time for Genea and discuss the implications of our results.

Cupreoboletus (Boletaceae, Boletineae), a new monotypic genus segregated from Boletus sect. Luridi to reassign the Mediterranean species B. poikilochromus.

Cupreoboletus is erected as a new monospecific genus of Boletaceae to accommodate the thermophilic southern European species Boletus poikilochromus, characterized by discoloration toward copper-red tints overall, hymenophore forming tiny crystals on drying, a pervasive and long lasting sweet odor and presence of pseudocystidia. Macro- and microscopic descriptions of the species based on re-examination of the type material and recent Italian collections including additional topotypical samples are provided and accompanied by photos and line drawings of the main anatomical structures. In addition, an epitype specimen is selected. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred from multigene molecular analysis based on partial sequences of the nuc rDNA 28S D1/D2 (28S) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and genes for ribosomal RNA polymerase II subunits 1 (rpb1) and 2 (rpb2) and translation-elongation factor 1-α (tef1α). Ecological context, geographical range and delimitation from closely allied taxa also were elucidated. B. martaluciae is treated as a synonym of C. poikilochromus according to the morphological and molecular comparative study.

Atractosporocybe, Leucocybe and Rhizocybe: three new clitocyboid genera in the Tricholomatoid clade (Agaricales) with notes on Clitocybe and Lepista.

A molecular multigene analysis (ITS, 18S and 28S nrLSU ribosomal DNA, tef1, rpb2) was used to support the proposition of three new genera of clitocyboid fungi. Leucocybe is proposed to accommodate the clade formed by Clitocybe connata and C. candicans. Clitocybe inornata is invested as type species of Atractosporocybe, while the new genus, Rhizocybe, is proposed for the former species of section Vernae of Clitocybe, C. vermicularis, C. pruinosa and C. rhizoides. The three lineages are related to the families Lyophyllaceae and Entolomataceae and independent from the Clitocybeae clade. Morphologically Rhizocybe is characterized by the presence of conspicuous rhizomorphs, while Atractosporocybe presents long fusiform spores. Leucocybe includes two whitish species in the former section Candicantes of Clitocybe, but no relevant shared characteristic feature was detected. Other whitish clitocyboid species, such as C. phyllophila (= C. cerussata), C. dealbata, C. rivulosa, and Singerocybe hydrogramma, are shown to be genetically related to the core lineage of the Clitocybeae.

Alessioporus and Pulchroboletus (Boletaceae, Boletineae), two novel genera for Xerocomus ichnusanus and X. roseoalbidus from the European Mediterranean basin: molecular and morphological evidence.

Alessioporus and Pulchroboletus are proposed as new monotypic genera to accommodate the thermo-xerophilic European species Xerocomus ichnusanus and X. roseoalbidus respectively. The present research focused on both morphological features and multigene molecular phylogeny (nrITS, nrLSU, tef-1α datasets) to elucidate the taxonomic status of these two rare Mediterranean boletes and delineate a natural classification within the family Boletaceae. Macro- and microscopic descriptions of the two species based on inclusive taxon sampling are provided and supported by line drawings of the main anatomical features. Phylogenetic relationships, ecology, geographical distribution and delimitation from the most closely allied taxa also are highlighted. In addition, epitype specimens are selected for both species.

Concordance of multigene genealogy along with morphological evidence unveils five novel species and two new records of boletoid mushrooms (fungi) from India.

Agaricales, Russulales and Boletales are dominant orders among the wild mushrooms in Basidiomycota. Boletaceae, one of the major functional elements in terrestrial ecosystem and mostly represented by ectomycorrhizal symbionts of trees in Indian Himalaya and adjoining hills, are extraordinarily diverse and represented by numerous genera and species which are unexplored or poorly known. Therefore, their hidden diversity is yet to be revealed. Extensive macrofungal exploration by the authors to different parts of Himalaya and surroundings, followed by through morphological studies and multigene molecular phylogeny lead to the discovery of five new species of wild mushrooms: Leccinellum bothii sp. nov., Phylloporus himalayanus sp. nov., Phylloporus smithii sp. nov., Porphyrellus uttarakhandae sp. nov., and Retiboletus pseudoater sp. nov. Present communication deals with morphological details coupled with illustrations and phylogenetic inferences. Besides, Leccinellum sinoaurantiacum and Xerocomus rugosellus are also reported for the first time from this country.

Responses of a soil fungal community to severe windstorm damages in an old silver fir stand.

Forests are increasingly threatened by climate change and the Anthropocene seems to have favored the emergence and adaptation of pathogens. Robust monitoring methods are required to prevent biodiversity and ecosystems losses, and this imposes the choice of bioindicators of habitat health. Fungal communities are increasingly recognized as fundamental components in nearly all natural and artificial environments, and their ecosystem services have a huge impact in maintaining and restoring the functionality of ecosystems. We coupled metabarcoding and soil analyses to infer the dynamics of a fungal community inhabiting the old silver fir stand in Vallombrosa (Italy), which is known to be afflicted by both Armillaria and Annosum root rot. The forest was affected in 2015, by a windstorm which caused a partial falling and uprooting of trees. The remaining stand, not affected by the windstorm, was used as a comparison to infer the consequences of the ecosystem disturbance. We demonstrated that the abundance of pathogens alone is not able to explain the soil fungal differences shown by the two areas. The fungal community as a whole was equally rich in the two areas, even if a reduction of the core ectomycorrhizal mycobiome was observed in the wind-damaged area, accompanied by the increase of wood saprotrophs and arbuscular mycorrhizas. We hypothesize a reshaping of the fungal community and a potentially ongoing re-generation of its functionalities. Our hypothesis is driven by the evidence that key symbiotic, endophytic, and saprotrophic guilds are still present and diversified in the wind-damaged area, and that dominance of single taxa or biodiversity loss was not observed from a mycological point of view. With the present study, we aim at providing evidence that fungal communities are fundamental for the monitoring and the conservation of threatened forest ecosystems.

Four Novel Species and Two New Records of Boletes from India.

Repeated macrofungal explorations, followed by thorough examination of species through morphology and molecular phylogeny, have made it clear that European and American names of wild mushrooms were inadvertently misapplied quite often to Asian lookalikes by mycologists/taxonomists in the past. Therefore, in order to reveal this mushroom treasure, in recent years, taxonomical research on wild mushrooms has been intensified in Asian countries, including India, by undertaking a combined approach of morpho-taxonomy and multigene molecular phylogeny. Boletoid mushrooms (Boletaceae) are no exception. While working on boletoid mushrooms of the Indian Himalayas, authors recently came across six interesting species of boletoid mushrooms. In the present communication, four novel species, namely Leccinellum binderi, Cyanoboletus paurianus, Xerocomus uttarakhandae, and Xerocomellus himalayanus, are established based on morphology and molecular phylogenetic estimations. Moreover, Cyanoboletus macroporus and Xerocomus fraternus are also reported here for the first time in India.

The phylogenetic position of Haasiella (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) and the relationships between H. venustissima and H. splendidissima.

Based on a combined ITS-LSU rDNA analysis, the omphalinoid genus Haasiella is shown to be part of the Hygrophoroid clade and sister to Hygrophorus. H. venustissima and H. splendidissima are conspecific; H. splendidissima is the tetrasporic/clamped and heterothallic form of H. venustissima.

A new Cortinarius of section Calochroi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) from Mediterranean Quercus woodlands (Italy).

A new species of Cortinarius, C. flavoaurantians sp. nov., is described from Italian Quercus woods based on both morphological and ITS rDNA data. This taxon is characterized by a yellowish pileus and cortina, a white universal veil and a pileipellis that reacts yellow-orange with KOH. Illustrations of the key micromorphological features and fresh basidiomata in situ are provided. Closely related species are discussed.

A new Neopaxillus species (Agaricomycetes) from the Dominican Republic and the status of Neopaxillus within the Agaricales.

The new species Neopaxillus dominicanus is described on the basis of collections from the Dominican Republic. It is distinguished by having a basidiome with decurrent, distant, white lamellae with evident pink-lilac tinges, a non-depressed pileus at maturity and well developed catenulate cheilocystidia. A description, color photographs of fresh basidiomes and line drawings of relevant microscopic traits are provided. N. dominicanus is morphologically similar to Neopaxillus echinospermus, a type species of the genus. Based on comparative ITS-LSU rDNA gene sequence analyses, Neopaxillus, formerly placed in the Boletales, is considered within the Agaricales where it is sister to Crepidotus (Crepidotaceae), and N. dominicanus is supported as distinct from N. echinospermus. Finally, according to our morphological and molecular analyses, two collections of N. echinospermus from Mexico are referable to N. dominicanus.

New Insights into Lichenization in Agaricomycetes Based on an Unusual New Basidiolichen Species of Omphalina s. str.

The genus Omphalina is an ideal genus for studying the evolutionary mechanism of lichenization. Based on molecular phylogeny using ITS and nuLSU sequences by means of Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses and morphological examination, combining the existence of green algae in basidiomata stipe and a Botrydina-type vegetative thallus, we described a bryophilous new basidiolichen species, Omphalina licheniformis, from a residential area of Jiangxi Province, China. This finding of unusual new basidiolichen species updated our understanding of the delimitation of Omphalina, indicating that both non-lichen-forming and lichen-forming fungal species are included simultaneously. The presence of algal cells in the basidiomata should receive more attention, as this would be helpful to distinguish more potential basidiolichens and explore the cryptic species diversity. This work provides new insights and evidence for understanding the significance of lichenization during the evolution of Agaricomycetes.

Systemic effects of Tuber melanosporum inoculation in two Corylus avellana genotypes.

Roots of the European hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.), i.e., one of the most economically important nut species, form symbiosis with ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, including truffles. Although physical interactions only occur in roots, the presence of mycorrhizal fungi can lead to metabolic changes at a systemic level, i.e., in leaves. However, how root colonization by ECM fungi modifies these processes in the host plant has so far not been widely studied. This work aimed to investigate the response in two C. avellana genotypes, focusing on leaves from plants inoculated with the black truffle Tuber melanosporum Vittad. Transcriptomic profiles of leaves of colonized plants were compared with those of non-colonized plants, as well as sugar and polyphenolic content. Results suggested that T. melanosporum has the potential to support plants in stressed conditions, leading to the systemic regulation of several genes involved in signaling and defense responses. Although further confirmation is needed, our results open new perspectives for future research aimed to highlight novel aspects in ECM symbiosis.

Reappraisal of the Genus Exsudoporus (Boletaceae) Worldwide Based on Multi-Gene Phylogeny, Morphology and Biogeography, and Insights on Amoenoboletus.

The boletoid genera Butyriboletus and Exsudoporus have recently been suggested by some researchers to constitute a single genus, and Exsudoporus was merged into Butyriboletus as a later synonym. However, no convincing arguments have yet provided significant evidence for this congeneric placement. In this study, we analyze material from Exsudoporus species and closely related taxa to assess taxonomic and phylogenetic boundaries between these genera and to clarify species delimitation within Exsudoporus. Outcomes from a multilocus phylogenetic analysis (ITS, nrLSU, tef1-α and rpb2) clearly resolve Exsudoporus as a monophyletic, homogenous and independent genus that is sister to Butyriboletus. An accurate morphological description, comprehensive sampling, type studies, line drawings and a historical overview on the nomenclatural issues of the type species E. permagnificus are provided. Furthermore, this species is documented for the first time from Israel in association with Quercus calliprinos. The previously described North American species Exsudoporus frostii and E. floridanus are molecularly confirmed as representatives of Exsudoporus, and E. floridanus is epitypified. The eastern Asian species Leccinum rubrum is assigned here to Exsudoporus based on molecular evidence, and a new combination is proposed. Sequence data from the original material of the Japanese Boletus kermesinus were generated, and its conspecificity with L. rubrum is inferred as formerly presumed based on morphology. Four additional cryptic species from North and Central America previously misdetermined as either B. frostii or B. floridanus are phylogenetically placed but remain undescribed due to the paucity of available material. Boletus weberi (syn. B. pseudofrostii) and Xerocomus cf. mcrobbii cluster outside of Exsudoporus and are herein assigned to the recently described genus Amoenoboletus. Biogeographic distribution patterns are elucidated, and a dichotomous key to all known species of Exsudoporus worldwide is presented.

A new annulate Pluteus variety from Italy.

Pluteus aurantiorugosus, var. aurantiovelatus var. nov., is described from Italy based on both morphological and ITS rDNA data. This taxon is characterized by an ornamented stipe provided with reddish orange remnants of a partial veil. The occurrence of the partial veil in Pluteus also is discussed.

A new taxon in the Infundibulicybe gibba complex (Basidiomycota, Agaricales, Tricholomataceae) from Sardinia (Italy).

A new species of Infundibulicybe (viz. I. mediterranea sp. nov.) is described from Sardinia based both on morphological and molecular ITS data. The species, a close ally of I. gibba, differs from the latter in the darker tinges of the basidiomata, the stipe, which is nearly concolorous with the pileus, and smaller basidiospores. Drawings of the main micro-morphological features as well as a color photograph of fresh basidiomata in situ are provided.

Taxonomic Re-Examination of Nine Rosellinia Types (Ascomycota, Xylariales) Stored in the Saccardo Mycological Collection.

In a recent monograph on the genus Rosellinia, type specimens worldwide were revised and re-classified using a morphological approach. Among them, some came from Pier Andrea Saccardo's fungarium stored in the Herbarium of the Padova Botanical Garden. In this work, we taxonomically re-examine via a morphological and molecular approach nine different Roselliniasensu Saccardo types. ITS1 and/or ITS2 sequences were successfully obtained applying Illumina MiSeq technology and phylogenetic analyses were carried out in order to elucidate their current taxonomic position. Only the ITS1 sequence was recovered for Rosellinia areolata, while for R. geophila, only the ITS2 sequence was recovered. We proposed here new combinations for Rosellinia chordicola, R. geophila and R. horridula, while for R. ambigua, R. areolata, R. australis, R. romana and R. somala, we did not suggest taxonomic changes compared to the current ones. The name Rosellinia subsimilis Sacc. is invalid, as it is a later homonym of R. subsimilis P. Karst. & Starbäck. Therefore, we introduced Coniochaeta dakotensis as a nomen novum for R. subsimilis Sacc. This is the first time that these types have been subjected to a molecular study. Our results demonstrate that old types are an important source of DNA sequence data for taxonomic re-examinations.

Localized reshaping of the fungal community in response to a forest fungal pathogen reveals resilience of Mediterranean mycobiota.

Mediterranean forests are facing the impact of pests such as the soilborne Phytophthora cambivora, the causal agent of Ink disease, and this impact is made more severe by global changes. The status and resilience of the soil microbial ecosystem in areas with such a disturbance are little known; however, the assessment of the microbial community is fundamental to preserve the ecosystem functioning under emerging challenges. We profile soil fungal communities in a chestnut stand affected by ink disease in Italy using metabarcoding, and couple high-throughput sequencing with physico-chemical parameters and dendrometric measurements. Since the site also includes an area where the disease symptoms seem to be suppressed, we performed several analyses to search for determinants that may contribute to such difference. We demonstrate that neither pathogen presence nor trees decline associate with the reduction of the residing community diversity and functions, but rather with microbial network reshaping through substitutions and new interactions, despite a conservation of core taxa. We predict interactions between taxa and parameters such as soil pH and C/N ratio, and suggest that disease incidence may also relate with disappearance of pathogen antagonists, including ericoid- and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi. By combining metabarcoding and field studies, we infer the resilient status of the fungal community towards a biotic stressor, and provide a benchmark for the study of other threatened ecosystems.

Squamanitaceae and three new species of Squamanita parasitic on Amanita basidiomes.

The systematic position of the enigmatically mycoparasitic genus Squamanita (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) together with Cystoderma, Phaeolepiota, Floccularia, and Leucopholiota is largely unknown. Recently they were recognized as Squamanitaceae, but previous studies used few DNA markers from a restricted sample of taxa from the family and lacked a formal taxonomic treatment. In this study, with newly generated sequences of the type of the genus Squamanita, S. schreieri, and several additional species of the family, the phylogeny is reinvestigated with a concatenated (18S-5.8S-nrLSU-RPB2-TEF1-α) dataset. This study reveals that Cystoderma, Phaeolepiota, Squamanita, Floccularia, and Leucopholiota are a monophyletic clade with strong statistical support in Bayesian analysis and form Squamanitaceae. Phaeolepiota nested within Cystoderma; Squamanita, Leucopholiota, and Floccularia clustered together as two monophyletic subclades; and Squamanita was present as a monophyletic clade with strong statistical support in both Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian analyses. The family name Squamanitaceae is formally emended and a detailed taxonomic treatment is presented to accommodate the five genera. Meanwhile, another concatenated (18S-ITS-nrLSU-RPB2-TEF1-α) dataset is used to investigate phylogenetic relationships and species delimitation in Squamanita. Our data indicates that "S. umbonata" from the Northern hemisphere forms two species complexes, one complex includes six specimens from North America, Europe, and East Asia, the other includes two specimens from Central America and North America respectively. Futhermore, species of Squamanita can parasitize species of Amanita, besides other fungal species. Squamanita mira parasitizes A. kitamagotake (A. sect. Caesareae), while S. orientalis and S. sororcula are parasites of species belonging to the A. sepiacea complex (A. sect. Validae). "Squamanita umbonata" from Italy occurs on A. excelsa (A. sect. Validae). Three new species of Squamanita from East Asia, viz. S. mira, S. orientalis and S. sororcula are documented with morphological, multi-gene phylogenetic, and ecological data, along with line drawings and photographs, and compared with similar species. A key for identification of the global Squamanita species is provided.

Tuber melanosporum, when dominant, affects fungal dynamics in truffle grounds.

The fruiting bodies of the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungus Tuber melanosporum are usually collected in an area devoid of vegetation which is defined as a 'burnt area' (brulé in French). Here, the soil fungal populations of inside and outside brulé were compared in order to understand whether the scanty plant cover was related to a change in fungal biodiversity. Both denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and molecular cloning of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) marker were employed on soil DNA to obtain profiles from nine truffle grounds and fungal sequences from one selected truffle ground sampled in two years. Denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis profiles from the two areas formed two distinct clusters while molecular cloning allowed 417 fungal sequences to be identified. T. melanosporum was the dominant fungus within the brulé. There were nine new haplotypes, which had never been detected in fruiting bodies. The Basidiomycota ECM fungi decreased within the brulé, indicating a competitive effect of T. melanosporum on the other ECM fungi. Among other factors, the dynamics of fungal populations seems to be correlated to brulé formation.