Independent bottlenecks characterize colonization of systemic compartments and gut lymphoid tissue by salmonella.

Vaccination represents an important instrument to control typhoid fever in humans and protects mice from lethal infection with mouse pathogenic serovars of Salmonella species. Mixed infections with tagged Salmonella can be used in combination with probabilistic models to describe the dynamics of the infection process. Here we used mixed oral infections with tagged Salmonella strains to identify bottlenecks in the infection process in naïve and vaccinated mice. We established a next generation sequencing based method to characterize the composition of tagged Salmonella strains which offers a fast and reliable method to characterise the composition of genome-tagged Salmonella strains. We show that initial colonization of Salmonella was distinguished by a non-Darwinian selection of few bacteria setting up the infection independently in gut associated lymphoid tissue and systemic compartments. Colonization of Peyer's patches fuels the sustained spread of bacteria into mesenteric lymph nodes via dendritic cells. In contrast, infection of liver and spleen originated from an independent pool of bacteria. Vaccination only moderately reduced invasion of Peyer's patches but potently uncoupled bacterial populations present in different systemic compartments. Our data indicate that vaccination differentially skews the capacity of Salmonella to colonize systemic and gut immune compartments and provide a framework for the further dissection of infection dynamics.

Aeroallergen challenge promotes dendritic cell proliferation in the airways.

Aeroallergen provocation induces the rapid accumulation of CD11c(+)MHC class II (MHC II)(+) dendritic cells (DCs) in the lungs, which is driven by an increased recruitment of blood-derived DC precursors. Recent data show, however, that well-differentiated DCs proliferate in situ in various tissues. This may also contribute to their allergen-induced expansion; therefore, we studied DC proliferation in the airways of mice in the steady state and after local aeroallergen provocation. Confocal whole-mount microscopy was used to visualize proliferating DCs in different microanatomical compartments of the lung. We demonstrate that in the steady state, CD11c(+)MHC II(+) DCs proliferate in both the epithelial and subepithelial layers of the airway mucosa as well as in the lung parenchyma. A 1-h pulse of the nucleotide 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine was sufficient to label 5% of DCs in both layers of the airway mucosa. On the level of whole-lung tissue, 3-5% of both CD11b(+) and CD11b(-) DC populations and 0.3% of CD11c(+)MHC II(low) lung macrophages incorporated 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine. Aeroallergen provocation caused a 3-fold increase in the frequency of locally proliferating DCs in the airway mucosa. This increase in mucosal DC proliferation was later followed by an elevation in the number of DCs. The recruitment of monocyte-derived inflammatory DCs contributed to the increasing number of DCs in the lung parenchyma, but not in the airway mucosa. We conclude that local proliferation significantly contributes to airway DC homeostasis in the steady state and that it is the major mechanism underlying the expansion of the mucosal epithelial/subepithelial DC network in allergic inflammation.

Cathepsin G and neutrophil elastase contribute to lung-protective immunity against mycobacterial infections in mice.

The neutrophil serine proteases cathepsin G (CG) and neutrophil elastase (NE) are involved in immune-regulatory processes and exert antibacterial activity against various pathogens. To date, their role and their therapeutic potential in pulmonary host defense against mycobacterial infections are poorly defined. In this work, we studied the roles of CG and NE in the pulmonary resistance against Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). CG-deficient mice and even more pronounced CG/NE-deficient mice showed significantly impaired pathogen elimination to infection with M. bovis BCG in comparison to wild-type mice. Moreover, granuloma formation was more pronounced in M. bovis BCG-infected CG/NE-deficient mice in comparison to CG-deficient and wild-type mice. A close examination of professional phagocyte subsets revealed that exclusively neutrophils shuttled CG and NE into the bronchoalveolar space of M. bovis BCG-infected mice. Accordingly, chimeric wild-type mice with a CG/NE-deficient hematopoietic system displayed significantly increased lung bacterial loads in response to M. bovis BCG infection. Therapeutically applied human CG/NE encapsulated in liposomes colocalized with mycobacteria in alveolar macrophages, as assessed by laser scanning and electron microscopy. Importantly, therapy with CG/NE-loaded liposomes significantly reduced mycobacterial loads in the lungs of mice. Together, neutrophil-derived CG and NE critically contribute to deceleration of pathogen replication during the early phase of antimycobacterial responses. In addition, to our knowledge, we show for the first time that liposomal encapsulated CG/NE exhibit therapeutic potential against pulmonary mycobacterial infections. These findings may be relevant for novel adjuvant approaches in the treatment of tuberculosis in humans.

Crucial role of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 and mast cells in induction of nonallergic airway hyperreactivity in mice.

RATIONALE: Airway hyperreactivity (AHR) is a key feature of bronchial asthma, and inhalation of irritants may facilitate development of nonallergic AHR. Swimmers exposed to hypochlorite (ClO(-))-containing water show a higher risk of developing AHR. We developed a mouse model in which instillation of ClO(-) before ovalbumin (OVA) induces AHR without bronchial inflammatory cells. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the mechanisms of ClO(-)-OVA-induced nonallergic AHR. METHODS: The involvement of the transient receptor potential ankyrin (TRPA)1 channel was checked in vivo by the use of TRPA1(-/-) mice and in vitro by Ca(2+) imaging experiments. The role of substance P (SP) was investigated by pretreating animals with the receptor antagonist RP67580, by replacing ClO(-) with SP in vivo, and by immunofluorescent staining of large airways of exposed mice. The role of mast cells was evaluated by exposing mast cell-deficient Kit(Wh)/Kit(Wsh) mice to ClO(-)-OVA with or without mast cell reconstitution. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: ClO(-)-OVA did not induce AHR in TRPA1(-/-) mice, and ClO(-) generates a Ca(2+) influx in TRPA1-transfected cells. Pretreatment with RP67580 reduces ClO(-)-OVA-induced AHR, although no increased SP expression was shown in the airways. SP-OVA exposure resulted in the same AHR as induced by ClO(-)-OVA. Kit(Wsh)/Kit(Wsh) mice did not develop AHR in response to ClO(-)-OVA unless they were reconstituted with bone marrow-derived mast cells. CONCLUSIONS: Induction of AHR by exposure to ClO(-)-OVA depends on a neuroimmune interaction that involves TRPA1-dependent stimulation of sensory neurons and mast cell activation.

Visualization and quantification of protein interactions in the biosynthetic pathway of molybdenum cofactor in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The molybdenum cofactor (Moco) is the active compound at the catalytic site of molybdenum enzymes. Moco is synthesized by a conserved four-step pathway involving six proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation was used to study the subcellular localization and interaction of those proteins catalysing Moco biosynthesis. In addition, the independent split-luciferase approach permitted quantification of the strength of these protein-protein interactions in vivo. Moco biosynthesis starts in mitochondria where two proteins undergo tight interaction. All subsequent steps were found to proceed in the cytosol. Here, the heterotetrameric enzyme molybdopterin synthase (catalysing step two of Moco biosynthesis) and the enzyme molybdenum insertase, which finalizes Moco formation, were found to undergo tight protein interaction as well. This cytosolic multimeric protein complex is dynamic as the small subunits of molybdopterin synthase are known to go on and off in order to become recharged with sulphur. These small subunits undergo a tighter protein contact within the enzyme molybdopterin synthase as compared with their interaction with the sulphurating enzyme. The forces of each of these protein contacts were quantified and provided interaction factors. To confirm the results, in vitro experiments using a technique combining cross-linking and label transfer were conducted. The data presented allowed the outline of the first draft of an interaction matrix for proteins within the pathway of Moco biosynthesis where product-substrate flow is facilitated through micro-compartmentalization in a cytosolic protein complex. The protected sequestering of fragile intermediates and formation of the final product are achieved through a series of direct protein interactions of variable strength.

Spatiotemporal and functional behavior of airway dendritic cells visualized by two-photon microscopy.

Airway mucosal dendritic cells (DCs), located beneath the epithelium of the conducting airways, are believed to be specialized for immunosurveillance via sampling of antigens from the airway luminal surface. However, the dynamics of airway DC activity has not yet been visualized. We used two-photon microscopy to illuminate the endogenous mucosal DC network in the airways of mice. To characterize DC behavior, we used lung section preparations and an intravital microscopic approach. DCs displayed a heterogeneous movement pattern according to their localization within the airway mucosa: sessile intraepithelial DCs with a dendritiform shape exhibited active probing movements and occasionally formed transepithelial extensions into the airway lumen. In contrast, DCs within the deeper layers of the mucosal tissue migrated fast in an amoeboid manner, without probing movements, and slowed down after aeroallergen challenge. Strikingly, neither of these two mucosal DC populations ingested fluorescently labeled antigens after antigen administration to the airways in the steady state, in contrast to alveolar macrophage/DC populations in the lung periphery. Our results provide a first description of the dynamic behavior of airway mucosal DCs, with their exact role in antigen sampling remaining unclear.

Dissemination of persistent intestinal bacteria via the mesenteric lymph nodes causes typhoid relapse.

Enteric pathogens can cause relapsing infections in a proportion of treated patients, but greater understanding of this phenomenon is hindered by the lack of appropriate animal models. We report here a robust animal model of relapsing primary typhoid that initiates after apparently successful antibiotic treatment of susceptible mice. Four days of enrofloxacin treatment were sufficient to reduce bacterial loads below detectable levels in all major organs, and mice appeared otherwise healthy. However, any interruption of further antibiotic therapy allowed renewed fecal shedding and renewed bacterial growth in systemic tissues to occur, and mice eventually succumbed to relapsing infection. In vivo imaging of luminescent Salmonella identified the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) as a major reservoir of relapsing infection. A magnetic-bead enrichment strategy isolated MLN-resident CD11b(+) Gr-1(-) monocytes associated with low numbers of persistent Salmonella. However, the removal of MLNs increased the severity of typhoid relapse, demonstrating that this organ serves as a protective filter to restrain the dissemination of bacteria during antibiotic therapy. Together, these data describe a robust animal model of typhoid relapse and identify an important intestinal phagocyte subset involved in protection against the systemic spread of enteric infection.

Mesenteric lymph nodes confine dendritic cell-mediated dissemination of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and limit systemic disease in mice.

In humans with typhoid fever or in mouse strains susceptible to Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) infection, bacteria gain access to extraintestinal tissues, causing severe systemic disease. Here we show that in the gut-draining mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), the majority of S. Typhimurium-carrying cells show dendritic-cell (DC) morphology and express the DC marker CD11c, indicating that S. Typhimurium bacteria are transported to the MLN by migratory DCs. In vivo FLT-3L-induced expansion of DCs, as well as stimulation of DC migration by Toll-like receptor agonists, results in increased numbers of S. Typhimurium bacteria reaching the MLN. Conversely, genetically impaired DC migration in chemokine receptor CCR7-deficient mice reduces the number of S. Typhimurium bacteria reaching the MLN. This indicates that transport of S. Typhimurium from the intestine into the MLN is limited by the number of migratory DCs carrying S. Typhimurium bacteria. In contrast, modulation of DC migration does not affect the number of S. Typhimurium bacteria reaching systemic tissues, indicating that DC-bound transport of S. Typhimurium does not substantially contribute to systemic S. Typhimurium infection. Surgical removal of the MLN results in increased numbers of S. Typhimurium bacteria reaching systemic sites early after infection, thereby rendering otherwise resistant mice susceptible to fatal systemic disease development. This suggests that the MLN provide a vital barrier shielding systemic compartments from DC-mediated dissemination of S. Typhimurium. Thus, confinement of S. Typhimurium in gut-associated lymphoid tissue and MLN delays massive extraintestinal dissemination and at the same time allows for the establishment of protective adaptive immune responses.

Neuropeptides control the dynamic behavior of airway mucosal dendritic cells.

The airway mucosal epithelium is permanently exposed to airborne particles. A network of immune cells patrols at this interface to the environment. The interplay of immune cells is orchestrated by different mediators. In the current study we investigated the impact of neuronal signals on key functions of dendritic cells (DC). Using two-photon microscopic time-lapse analysis of living lung sections from CD11c-EYFP transgenic mice we studied the influence of neuropeptides on airway DC motility. Additionally, using a confocal microscopic approach, the phagocytotic capacity of CD11c(+) cells after neuropeptide stimulation was determined. Electrical field stimulation (EFS) leads to an unspecific release of neuropeptides from nerves. After EFS and treatment with the neuropeptides vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) or calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), airway DC in living lung slices showed an altered motility. Furthermore, the EFS-mediated effect could partially be blocked by pre-treatment with the receptor antagonist CGRP(8-37). Additionally, the phagocytotic capacity of bone marrow-derived and whole lung CD11c(+) cells could be inhibited by neuropeptides CGRP, VIP, and Substance P. We then cross-linked these data with the in vivo situation by analyzing DC motility in two different OVA asthma models. Both in the acute and prolonged OVA asthma model altered neuropeptide amounts and DC motility in the airways could be measured. In summary, our data suggest that neuropeptides modulate key features motility and phagocytosis of mouse airway DC. Therefore altered neuropeptide levels in airways during allergic inflammation have impact on regulation of airway immune mechanisms and therefore might contribute to the pathophysiology of asthma.