Conservation value of small reserves.

The importance of large reserves has been long maintained in the scientific literature, often leading to dismissal of the conservation potential of small reserves. However, over half the global protected-area inventory is composed of protected areas that are <100 ha, and the median size of added protected area is decreasing. Studies of the conservation value of small reserves and fragments of natural area are relatively uncommon in the literature. We reviewed SCOPUS and WOK for studies on small reserve and fragment contributions to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services, and fifty-eight taxon-specific studies were included in the review. Small reserves harbored substantial portions (upward of 50%) of regional species diversity for many taxa (birds, plants, amphibians, and small mammals) and even some endemic, specialist bird species. Unfortunately, small reserves and fragments almost always harbored more generalist and exotic species than large reserves. Community composition depended on habitat quality, surrounding land use (agricultural vs. urban), and reserve and fragment size, which presents opportunities for management and improvement. Small reserves also provided ecosystem services, such as pollination and biological pest control, and cultural services, such as recreation and improved human health. Limitations associated with small reserves, such as extinction debt and support of area-sensitive species, necessitate a complement of larger reserves. However, we argue that small reserves can make viable and significant contributions to conservation goals directly as habitat and indirectly by increasing landscape connectivity and quality to the benefit of large reserves. To effectively conserve biodiversity for future generations in landscapes fragmented by human development, small reserves and fragments must be included in conservation planning.

Valor de Conservación de las Pequeñas Reservas Resumen La importancia de las reservas muy extensas se ha mantenido durante mucho tiempo dentro de la literatura científica, lo que comúnmente lleva a la desestimación del potencial de conservación de las reservas pequeñas. Sin embargo, más de la mitad del inventario mundial de áreas protegidas está compuesto por zonas resguardadas con un tamaño menor a las 100 ha, y el tamaño promedio de área protegida añadida está disminuyendo. Los estudios sobre el valor de conservación de las reservas pequeñas y los fragmentos de área natural son relativamente poco comunes en la literatura. Revisamos estudios sobre las contribuciones de las reservas pequeñas y los fragmentos a la conservación de la biodiversidad y los servicios ambientales en SCOPUS y en WOK. Se incluyeron 58 estudios específicos de taxón en la revisión. Las reservas pequeñas albergaron porciones sustanciales (más del 50%) de diversidad de especies regionales para muchos taxones e incluso algunas especies de aves endémicas y especialistas. Desafortunadamente, las reservas pequeñas y los fragmentos casi siempre albergaron más especies exóticas y generalistas que las reservas grandes. La composición de la comunidad dependió de la calidad del hábitat, el uso de suelo (urbano versus agrícola) adyacente y el tamaño de la reserva o el fragmento, lo que presenta oportunidades de manejo y mejora. Las reservas pequeñas también proporcionaron servicios ambientales, como la polinización y el control biológico de plagas, y servicios culturales, como la recreación y una mejor salud humana. Las limitaciones asociadas con las reservas pequeñas, como la deuda de extinción y el respaldo a especies sensibles al área, requieren de un complemento de reservas más grandes. Sin embargo, argumentamos que las reservas pequeñas pueden tener contribuciones viables y significativas para las metas de conservación directamente como hábitat e indirectamente con el incremento de la conectividad y la calidad de paisajes para el beneficio de las reservas más grandes. Para conservar efectivamente a la biodiversidad para generaciones futuras en paisajes fragmentados por el desarrollo humano, se debe incluir a las reservas pequeñas y a los fragmentos en la planeación de la conservación.

The interaction of temperature and precipitation determines productivity and diversity in a bunchgrass prairie ecosystem.

Over the past century at the National Bison Range, temperature has increased by 0.6 °C, and annual precipitation has decreased by 26%, despite increases in May-June precipitation over the past 35 years. Limited experimental work to date has explored plant responses produced by the interaction of changes in both temperature and precipitation, and of the existing studies, none have focused on the endangered bunchgrass ecosystem. Using a 2-year climate change manipulation experiment, we show that bunchgrass productivity increased with supplemental growing season precipitation, while warming alone exerted no significant effect. More importantly, the ratio of June precipitation to minimum temperature, a representation of the interaction of climate variables, predicted bunchgrass productivity better than either climate variable individually. This ratio acted as a surrogate index reflecting increased evapotranspiration with rising temperatures and thus better predicting soil moisture available for plant growth. Experimental warming over the summer led to significantly lower plant species richness and biodiversity, while increased precipitation, when applied over the entire summer, counteracted some of these declines. Warming also led to greater and more rapid plant senescence over the summer, resulting in greater litter production [an increase of 47.82 ± 17.82 (± SE) percentage points] and potential fire risk. Given the simultaneous changes in precipitation and temperature predicted for the next century, multi-factor experiments are essential to understand how ecosystems will respond to future climate scenarios.

Public parks and the pandemic: How park usage has been affected by COVID-19 policies.

Public parks serve an important societal function as recreational spaces for diverse communities of people, with well documented physical and mental health benefits. As such, parks may be crucial for how people have handled effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly the increasingly limited recreational opportunities, widespread financial uncertainty, and consequent heightened anxiety. Despite the documented benefits of parks, however, many states have instituted park shutdown orders due to fears that public parks could facilitate SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Here we use geotagged social media data from state, county, and local parks throughout New Jersey to examine whether park visitation increased when the COVID-19 pandemic began and whether park shutdown orders were effective at deterring park usage. We compare park usage during four discrete stages of spring 2020: (1) before the pandemic began, (2) during the beginning of the pandemic, (3) during the New Jersey governor's state-wide park shutdown order, and (4) following the lifting of the shutdown. We find that park visitation increased by 63.4% with the onset of the pandemic. The subsequent park shutdown order caused visitation in closed parks to decline by 76.1% while parks that remained open continued to experience elevated visitation levels. Visitation then returned to elevated pre-shutdown levels when closed parks were allowed to reopen. Altogether, our results indicate that parks continue to provide crucial services to society, particularly in stressful times when opportunities for recreation are limited. Furthermore, our results suggest that policies targeting human behavior can be effective and are largely reversible. As such, we should continue to invest in public parks and to explore the role of parks in managing public health and psychological well-being.