Suppressed basal melting in the eastern Thwaites Glacier grounding zone.

Thwaites Glacier is one of the fastest-changing ice-ocean systems in Antarctica1-3. Much of the ice sheet within the catchment of Thwaites Glacier is grounded below sea level on bedrock that deepens inland4, making it susceptible to rapid and irreversible ice loss that could raise the global sea level by more than half a metre2,3,5. The rate and extent of ice loss, and whether it proceeds irreversibly, are set by the ocean conditions and basal melting within the grounding-zone region where Thwaites Glacier first goes afloat3,6, both of which are largely unknown. Here we show-using observations from a hot-water-drilled access hole-that the grounding zone of Thwaites Eastern Ice Shelf (TEIS) is characterized by a warm and highly stable water column with temperatures substantially higher than the in situ freezing point. Despite these warm conditions, low current speeds and strong density stratification in the ice-ocean boundary layer actively restrict the vertical mixing of heat towards the ice base7,8, resulting in strongly suppressed basal melting. Our results demonstrate that the canonical model of ice-shelf basal melting used to generate sea-level projections cannot reproduce observed melt rates beneath this critically important glacier, and that rapid and possibly unstable grounding-line retreat may be associated with relatively modest basal melt rates.

Swirls and scoops: Ice base melt revealed by multibeam imagery of an Antarctic ice shelf.

Knowledge gaps about how the ocean melts Antarctica's ice shelves, borne from a lack of observations, lead to large uncertainties in sea level predictions. Using high-resolution maps of the underside of Dotson Ice Shelf, West Antarctica, we reveal the imprint that ice shelf basal melting leaves on the ice. Convection and intermittent warm water intrusions form widespread terraced features through slow melting in quiescent areas, while shear-driven turbulence rapidly melts smooth, eroded topographies in outflow areas, as well as enigmatic teardrop-shaped indentations that result from boundary-layer flow rotation. Full-thickness ice fractures, with bases modified by basal melting and convective processes, are observed throughout the area. This new wealth of processes, all active under a single ice shelf, must be considered to accurately predict future Antarctic ice shelf melt.

Direct observations of melting, freezing, and ocean circulation in an ice shelf basal crevasse.

Ocean conditions near the grounding zones of Antarctica's ice shelves play a key role in controlling the outflow and mass balance of the ice sheet. However, ocean observations in these regions are largely absent. Here, we present a detailed spatial survey collected with an underwater vehicle in a basal crevasse located in the ocean cavity at the Ross Ice Shelf grounding zone. The observations depict fine-scale variability in ocean forcing that drives asymmetric melting along the lower crevasse sidewalls and freezing in the upper reaches of the crevasse. Freshwater release from melting at depth and salt rejection from freezing above drives an overturning circulation. This vertical circulation pattern overlays a dominant throughflow jet, which funnels water parallel to the coastline, orthogonal to the direction of tidal currents. Importantly, these data reveal that basal crevasses influence ocean circulation and mixing at ice shelf grounding zones to an extent previously unknown.

Tidal Modulation of Buoyant Flow and Basal Melt Beneath Petermann Gletscher Ice Shelf, Greenland.

A set of collocated, in situ oceanographic and glaciological measurements from Petermann Gletscher Ice Shelf, Greenland, provides insights into the dynamics of under-ice flow driving basal melting. At a site 16 km seaward of the grounding line within a longitudinal basal channel, two conductivity-temperature (CT) sensors beneath the ice base and a phase-sensitive radar on the ice surface were used to monitor the coupled ice shelf-ocean system. A 6 month time series spanning 23 August 2015 to 12 February 2016 exhibited two distinct periods of ice-ocean interactions. Between August and December, radar-derived basal melt rates featured fortnightly peaks of ∼15 m yr-1 which preceded the arrival of cold and fresh pulses in the ocean that had high concentrations of subglacial runoff and glacial meltwater. Estimated current speeds reached 0.20 - 0.40 m s-1 during these pulses, consistent with a strengthened meltwater plume from freshwater enrichment. Such signals did not occur between December and February, when ice-ocean interactions instead varied at principal diurnal and semidiurnal tidal frequencies, and lower melt rates and current speeds prevailed. A combination of estimated current speeds and meltwater concentrations from the two CT sensors yields estimates of subglacial runoff and glacial meltwater volume fluxes that vary between 10 and 80 m3 s-1 during the ocean pulses. Area-average upstream ice shelf melt rates from these fluxes are up to 170 m yr-1, revealing that these strengthened plumes had already driven their most intense melting before arriving at the study site.

Summer surface melt thins Petermann Gletscher Ice Shelf by enhancing channelized basal melt.

Increasing ocean and air temperatures have contributed to the removal of floating ice shelves from several Greenland outlet glaciers; however, the specific contribution of these external forcings remains poorly understood. Here we use atmospheric, oceanographic, and glaciological time series data from the ice shelf of Petermann Gletscher, NW Greenland to quantify the forcing of the ocean and atmosphere on the ice shelf at a site ~16 km from the grounding line within a large sub-ice-shelf channel. Basal melt rates here indicate a strong seasonality, rising from a winter mean of 2 m yr-1 to a maximum of 80 m yr-1 during the summer melt season. This increase in basal melt rates confirms the direct link between summer atmospheric warming around Greenland and enhanced ocean-forced melting of its remaining ice shelves. We attribute this enhanced melting to increased discharge of subglacial runoff into the ocean at the grounding line, which strengthens under-ice currents and drives a greater ocean heat flux toward the ice base.