Methanogenic paraffin degradation proceeds via alkane addition to fumarate by 'Smithella' spp. mediated by a syntrophic coupling with hydrogenotrophic methanogens.

Anaerobic microbial biodegradation of recalcitrant, water-insoluble substrates, such as paraffins, presents unique metabolic challenges. To elucidate this process, a methanogenic consortium capable of mineralizing long-chain n-paraffins (C28 -C50 ) was enriched from San Diego Bay sediment. Analysis of 16S rRNA genes indicated the dominance of Syntrophobacterales (43%) and Methanomicrobiales (26%). Metagenomic sequencing allowed draft genome assembly of dominant uncultivated community members belonging to the bacterial genus Smithella and the archaeal genera Methanoculleus and Methanosaeta. Five contigs encoding homologs of the catalytic subunit of alkylsuccinate synthase (assA) were detected. Additionally, mRNA transcripts for these genes, including a homolog binned within the 'Smithella' sp. SDB genome scaffold, were detected via RT-PCR, implying that paraffins are activated via 'fumarate addition'. Metabolic reconstruction and comparison with genome scaffolds of uncultivated n-alkane degrading 'Smithella' spp. are consistent with the hypothesis that syntrophically growing 'Smithella' spp. may achieve reverse electron transfer by coupling the reoxidation of ETFred to a membrane-bound FeS oxidoreductase functioning as an ETF:menaquinone oxidoreductase. Subsequent electron transfer could proceed via a periplasmic formate dehydrogenase and/or hydrogenase, allowing energetic coupling to hydrogenotrophic methanogens such as Methanoculleus. Ultimately, these data provide fundamental insight into the energy conservation mechanisms that dictate interspecies interactions salient to methanogenic alkane mineralization.

Dethiosulfatarculus sandiegensis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from a methanogenic paraffin-degrading enrichment culture and emended description of the family Desulfarculaceae.

A mesophilic deltaproteobacterium, designated strain SPRT, was isolated from a methanogenic consortium capable of degrading long-chain paraffins. Cells were motile, vibrio-shaped, and occurred singly, in pairs or in clusters. Strain SPRT did not metabolize hydrocarbons but grew fermentatively on pyruvate and oxaloacetate and autotrophically with H2 and CO2. Thiosulfate served as a terminal electron acceptor, but sulfate or sulfite did not. The organism required at least 10 g NaCl l- 1 and a small amount of yeast extract (0.001%) for growth. Optimal growth was observed between 30 and 37 °C and a pH range from 6.0 to 7.2. The DNA G+C content of SPRT's genome was 52.02 mol%. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, strain SPRT was distinct from previously described Deltaproteobacteria, exhibiting the closest affiliation to Desulfarculus baarsii DSM 2075T and Desulfocarbo indianensis SCBMT, with only 91% similarity between their respective 16S gene sequences. In silico genome comparison supported the distinctiveness between strain SPRT and both Desulfocarbo indianensis SCBMT and Desulfarculus baarsii DSM 2075T. Based on physiological differences, as well as phylogenetic and genomic comparisons, we propose to classify SPRT as the type strain ( = DSM 100305T = JCM 30857T) of a novel species of a new genus with the name Dethiosulfatarculus sandiegensis gen. nov., sp. nov.

Urea uptake and carbon fixation by marine pelagic bacteria and archaea during the Arctic summer and winter seasons.

How Arctic climate change might translate into alterations of biogeochemical cycles of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) with respect to inorganic and organic N utilization is not well understood. This study combined 15N uptake rate measurements for ammonium, nitrate, and urea with 15N- and 13C-based DNA stable-isotope probing (SIP). The objective was to identify active bacterial and archeal plankton and their role in N and C uptake during the Arctic summer and winter seasons. We hypothesized that bacteria and archaea would successfully compete for nitrate and urea during the Arctic winter but not during the summer, when phytoplankton dominate the uptake of these nitrogen sources. Samples were collected at a coastal station near Barrow, AK, during August and January. During both seasons, ammonium uptake rates were greater than those for nitrate or urea, and nitrate uptake rates remained lower than those for ammonium or urea. SIP experiments indicated a strong seasonal shift of bacterial and archaeal N utilization from ammonium during the summer to urea during the winter but did not support a similar seasonal pattern of nitrate utilization. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences obtained from each SIP fraction implicated marine group I Crenarchaeota (MGIC) as well as Betaproteobacteria, Firmicutes, SAR11, and SAR324 in N uptake from urea during the winter. Similarly, 13C SIP data suggested dark carbon fixation for MGIC, as well as for several proteobacterial lineages and the Firmicutes. These data are consistent with urea-fueled nitrification by polar archaea and bacteria, which may be advantageous under dark conditions.

Youngiibacter fragilis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from natural gas production-water and reclassification of Acetivibrio multivorans as Youngiibacter multivorans comb. nov.

A taxonomic study employing a polyphasic approach was performed on a novel anaerobic bacterium isolated from natural gas production-water. The bacterium stained Gram-negative and consisted of non-motile, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped cells. Products of glucose or starch fermentation were ethanol, CO2, formate, acetate and H2. The predominant fatty acids were C16 : 0 ALDE and summed feature 3 comprising C16 : 1ω7c and/or C16 : 1ω6c. The DNA G+C content was 45.5 mol%. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis demonstrated that the nearest phylogenetic neighbours of the novel strain were Acetivibrio multivorans DSM 6139(T) (98.5 %) and Proteiniclasticum ruminis JCM 14817(T) (95.4 %). The DNA-DNA hybridization value between the novel organism and Acetivibrio multivorans PeC1 DSM 6139(T) was determined to be only 30.2 %, demonstrating the separateness of the two species. Based on phylogenetic, phenotypic and chemotaxonomic evidence that clearly distinguished strain 232.1(T) from Proteiniclasticum ruminis and other close relatives, it is proposed that the novel isolate be classified as representing a novel species of a new genus within the family Clostridiaceae, Youngiibacter fragilis gen. nov., sp. nov. The type strain of the type species is 232.1(T) ( = ATCC BAA-2257(T) = DSM 24749(T)). In addition, Acetivibrio multivorans is proposed to be reclassified as Youngiibacter multivorans comb. nov.

Functional prokaryotic RubisCO from an oceanic metagenomic library.

Culture-independent studies have indicated that there is significant diversity in the ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO) enzymes used by marine, freshwater, and terrestrial autotrophic bacteria. Surprisingly, little is known about the catalytic properties of many environmentally significant RubisCO enzymes. Because one of the goals of RubisCO research is to somehow modify or select for RubisCO molecules with improved kinetic properties, a facile means to isolate functional and novel RubisCO molecules directly from the environment was developed. In this report, we describe the first example of functional RubisCO proteins obtained from genes cloned and characterized from metagenomic libraries derived from DNA isolated from environmental samples. Two form IA marine RubisCO genes were cloned, and each gene supported both photoheterotrophic and photoautotrophic growth of a RubisCO deletion strain of Rhodobacter capsulatus, strain SBI/II(-), indicating that catalytically active recombinant RubisCO was synthesized. The catalytic properties of the metagenomic RubisCO molecules were further characterized. These experiments demonstrated the feasibility of studying the functional diversity and enzymatic properties of RubisCO enzymes without first cultivating the host organisms. Further, this "proof of concept" experiment opens the way for development of a simple functional screen to examine the properties of diverse RubisCO genes isolated from any environment, and subsequent further bioselection may be possible if the growth conditions of complemented R. capsulatus strain SBI/II(-) are varied.

Diversity of benzyl- and alkylsuccinate synthase genes in hydrocarbon-impacted environments and enrichment cultures.

Hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms play an important role in the natural attenuation of spilled petroleum in a variety of anoxic environments. The role of benzylsuccinate synthase (BSS) in aromatic hydrocarbon degradation and its use as a biomarker for field investigations are well documented. The recent discovery of alkylsuccinate synthase (ASS) allows the opportunity to test whether its encoding gene, assA, can serve as a comparable biomarker of anaerobic alkane degradation. Degenerate assA- and bssA-targeted PCR primers were designed in order to survey the diversity of genes associated with aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon biodegradation in petroleum-impacted environments and enrichment cultures. DNA was extracted from an anaerobic alkane-degrading isolate (Desulfoglaeba alkenexedens ALDC), hydrocarbon-contaminated river and aquifer sediments, a paraffin-degrading enrichment, and a propane-utilizing mixed culture. Partial assA and bssA genes were PCR amplified, cloned, and sequenced, yielding several novel clades of assA genes. These data expand the range of alkane-degrading conditions for which relevant gene sequences are available and indicate that considerable diversity of assA genes can be found in hydrocarbon-impacted environments. The detection of genes associated with anaerobic alkane degradation in conjunction with the in situ detection of alkylsuccinate metabolites was also demonstrated. Comparable molecular signals of assA/bssA were not found when environmental metagenome databases of uncontaminated sites were searched. These data confirm that the assA gene is a useful biomarker for anaerobic alkane metabolism.

Use of inorganic and organic nitrogen by Synechococcus spp. and diatoms on the west Florida shelf as measured using stable isotope probing.

The marine nitrogen (N) cycle is a complex network of biological transformations in different N pools. The linkages among these different reservoirs are often poorly understood. Traditional methods for measuring N uptake rely on bulk community properties and cannot provide taxonomic information. (15)N-based stable isotope probing (SIP), however, is a technique that allows detection of uptake of individual N sources by specific microorganisms. In this study we used (15)N SIP methodology to assess the use of different nitrogen substrates by Synechococcus spp. and diatoms on the west Florida shelf. Seawater was incubated in the presence of (15)N-labeled ammonium, nitrate, urea, glutamic acid, and a mixture of 16 amino acids. DNA was extracted and fractionated using CsCl density gradient centrifugation. Quantitative PCR was used to quantify the amounts of Synechococcus and diatom DNA as a function of density, and (15)N tracer techniques were used to measure rates of N uptake by the microbial community. The ammonium, nitrate, urea, and dissolved primary amine uptake rates were 0.077, 0.065, 0.013, and 0.055 micromol N liter(-1) h(-1), respectively. SIP data indicated that diatoms and Synechococcus spp. actively incorporated N from [(15)N]nitrate, [(15)N]ammonium, and [(15)N]urea. Synechococcus also incorporated nitrogen from [(15)N]glutamate and (15)N-amino acids, but no evidence indicating uptake of labeled amino acids by diatoms was detected. These data suggest that N flow in communities containing Synechococcus spp. and diatoms has more plasticity than the new-versus-recycled production paradigm suggests and that these phytoplankters should not be viewed strictly as recycled and new producers, respectively.

Anaerobic alkane-degrading strain AK-01 contains two alkylsuccinate synthase genes.

The sulfate-reducing strain AK-01 activates alkanes via addition of the subterminal carbon to the double bond of fumarate. This reaction is similar to the action of the glycyl radical enzyme benzylsuccinate synthase (Bss). It was hypothesized that strain AK-01 possesses a similar enzyme. Degenerate bssA primers and inverse PCR were used to amplify two unlinked genes (assA1 and assA2), which encode catalytic subunits of glycyl radical type enzymes. Subsequent genome sequencing of AK-01 revealed two ass operons. SDS-PAGE analysis of AK-01 grown on n-hexadecane revealed a 95-kDa protein which is absent in hexadecanoate-grown cells. LC-MS/MS data obtained from a tryptic digest of this protein match the deduced amino acid sequence encoded by assA1, thus confirming AssA1's involvement in alkane metabolism. This report is the first description of a gene involved in anaerobic n-alkane metabolism in a sulfate-reducer and provides evidence for a novel glycyl radical enzyme.

Metabolomic Fingerprints of Individual Algal Cells Using the Single-Probe Mass Spectrometry Technique.

Traditional approaches for the assessment of physiological responses of microbes in the environment rely on bulk filtration techniques that obscure differences among populations as well as among individual cells. Here, were report on the development on a novel micro-scale sampling device, referred to as the "Single-probe," which allows direct extraction of metabolites from living, individual phytoplankton cells for mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. The Single-probe is composed of dual-bore quartz tubing which is pulled using a laser pipette puller and fused to a silica capillary and a nano-ESI. For this study, we applied Single-probe MS technology to the marine dinoflagellate Scrippsiella trochoidea, assaying cells grown under different illumination levels and under nitrogen (N) limiting conditions as a proof of concept for the technology. In both experiments, significant differences in the cellular metabolome of individual cells could readily be identified, though the vast majority of detected metabolites could not be assigned to KEGG pathways. Using the same approach, significant changes in cellular lipid complements were observed, with individual lipids being both up- and down-regulated under light vs. dark conditions. Conversely, lipid content increased across the board under N limitation, consistent with an adjustment of Redfield stoichiometry to reflect higher C:N and C:P ratios. Overall, these data suggest that the Single-probe MS technique has the potential to allow for near in situ metabolomic analysis of individual phytoplankton cells, opening the door to targeted analyses that minimize cell manipulation and sampling artifacts, while preserving metabolic variability at the cellular level.

Different Bacterial Communities Involved in Peptide Decomposition between Normoxic and Hypoxic Coastal Waters.

Proteins and peptides are key components of the labile dissolved organic matter pool in marine environments. Knowing which types of bacteria metabolize peptides can inform the factors that govern peptide decomposition and further carbon and nitrogen remineralization in marine environments. A 13C-labeled tetrapeptide, alanine-valine-phenylalanine-alanine (AVFA), was added to both surface (normoxic) and bottom (hypoxic) seawater from a coastal station in the northern Gulf of Mexico for a 2-day incubation experiment, and bacteria that incorporated the peptide were identified using DNA stable isotope probing (SIP). The decomposition rate of AVFA in the bottom hypoxic seawater (0.018-0.035 µM h-1) was twice as fast as that in the surface normoxic seawater (0.011-0.017 µM h-1). SIP experiments indicated that incorporation of 13C was highest among the Flavobacteria, Sphingobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Acidimicrobiia, Verrucomicrobiae, Cyanobacteria, and Actinobacteria in surface waters. In contrast, highest 13C-enrichment was mainly observed in several Alphaproteobacteria (Thalassococcus, Rhodobacteraceae, Ruegeria) and Gammaproteobacteria genera (Colwellia, Balneatrix, Thalassomonas) in the bottom water. These data suggest that a more diverse group of both oligotrophic and copiotrophic bacteria may be involved in metabolizing labile organic matter such as peptides in normoxic coastal waters, and several copiotrophic genera belonging to Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria and known to be widely distributed may contribute to faster peptide decomposition in the hypoxic waters.

Metabolomic and Metagenomic Analysis of Two Crude Oil Production Pipelines Experiencing Differential Rates of Corrosion.

Corrosion processes in two North Sea oil production pipelines were studied by analyzing pig envelope samples via metagenomic and metabolomic techniques. Both production systems have similar physico-chemical properties and injection waters are treated with nitrate, but one pipeline experiences severe corrosion and the other does not. Early and late pigging material was collected to gain insight into the potential causes for differential corrosion rates. Metabolites were extracted and analyzed via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (ESI) in both positive and negative ion modes. Metabolites were analyzed by comparison with standards indicative of aerobic and anaerobic hydrocarbon metabolism and by comparison to predicted masses for KEGG metabolites. Microbial community structure was analyzed via 16S rRNA gene qPCR, sequencing of 16S PCR products, and MySeq Illumina shotgun sequencing of community DNA. Metagenomic data were used to reconstruct the full length 16S rRNA genes and genomes of dominant microorganisms. Sequence data were also interrogated via KEGG annotation and for the presence of genes related to terminal electron accepting (TEA) processes as well as aerobic and anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation. Significant and distinct differences were observed when comparing the 'high corrosion' (HC) and the 'low corrosion' (LC) pipeline systems, especially with respect to the TEA utilization potential. The HC samples were dominated by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and archaea known for their ability to utilize simple carbon substrates, whereas LC samples were dominated by pseudomonads with the genetic potential for denitrification and aerobic hydrocarbon degradation. The frequency of aerobic hydrocarbon degradation genes was low in the HC system, and anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation genes were not detected in either pipeline. This is in contrast with metabolite analysis, which demonstrated the presence of several succinic acids in HC samples that are diagnostic of anaerobic hydrocarbon metabolism. Identifiable aerobic metabolites were confined to the LC samples, consistent with the metagenomic data. Overall, these data suggest that corrosion management might benefit from a more refined understanding of microbial community resilience in the face of disturbances such as nitrate treatment or pigging, which frequently prove insufficient to alter community structure toward a stable, less-corrosive assemblage.

Transcriptome Analysis of Scrippsiella trochoidea CCMP 3099 Reveals Physiological Changes Related to Nitrate Depletion.

Dinoflagellates are a major component of marine phytoplankton and many species are recognized for their ability to produce harmful algal blooms (HABs). Scrippsiella trochoidea is a non-toxic, marine dinoflagellate that can be found in both cold and tropic waters where it is known to produce "red tide" events. Little is known about the genomic makeup of S. trochoidea and a transcriptome study was conducted to shed light on the biochemical and physiological adaptations related to nutrient depletion. Cultures were grown under N and P limiting conditions and transcriptomes were generated via RNAseq technology. De novo assembly reconstructed 107,415 putative transcripts of which only 41% could be annotated. No significant transcriptomic response was observed in response to initial P depletion, however, a strong transcriptional response to N depletion was detected. Among the down-regulated pathways were those for glutamine/glutamate metabolism as well as urea and nitrate/nitrite transporters. Transcripts for ammonia transporters displayed both up- and down-regulation, perhaps related to a shift to higher affinity transporters. Genes for the utilization of DON compounds were up-regulated. These included transcripts for amino acids transporters, polyamine oxidase, and extracellular proteinase and peptidases. N depletion also triggered down regulation of transcripts related to the production of Photosystems I & II and related proteins. These data are consistent with a metabolic strategy that conserves N while maximizing sustained metabolism by emphasizing the relative contribution of organic N sources. Surprisingly, the transcriptome also contained transcripts potentially related to secondary metabolite production, including a homolog to the Short Isoform Saxitoxin gene (sxtA) from Alexandrium fundyense, which was significantly up-regulated under N-depletion. A total of 113 unique hits to Sxt genes, covering 17 of the 34 genes found in C. raciborskii were detected, indicating that S. trochoidea has previously unrecognized potential for the production of secondary metabolites with potential toxicity.

Transcriptional response of Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans AK-01 to growth on alkanes: insights from RT-qPCR and microarray analyses.

Microbial transformation of n-alkanes in anaerobic ecosystems plays a pivotal role in biogeochemical carbon cycling and bioremediation, but the requisite genetic machinery is not well elucidated.Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans AK-01 utilizes n-alkanes (C13 to C18) and contains two genomic loci encoding alkylsuccinate synthase (ASS) gene clusters. ASS catalyzes alkane addition to fumarate to form methylalkylsuccinic acids. We hypothesized that the genes in the two clusters would be differentially expressed depending on the alkane substrate utilized for growth. RT-qPCR was used to investigate ass-gene expression across AK-01's known substrate range, and microarray-based transcriptomic analysis served to investigate whole-cell responses to growth on n-hexadecane versus hexadecanoate. RT-qPCR revealed induction of ass gene cluster 1 during growth on all tested alkane substrates, and the transcriptional start sites in cluster 1 were determined via 5'RACE. Induction of ass gene cluster 2 was not observed under the tested conditions. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that the upregulation of genes potentially involved in methylalkylsuccinate metabolism, including methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and a putative carboxyl transferase. These findings provide new directions for studying the transcriptional regulation of genes involved in alkane addition to fumarate, fumarate recycling and the processing of methylalkylsuccinates with regard to isolates, enrichment cultures and ecological datasets.

Interrogation of Chesapeake Bay sediment microbial communities for intrinsic alkane-utilizing potential under anaerobic conditions.

Based on the transient exposure of Chesapeake Bay sediments to hydrocarbons and the metabolic versatility of known anaerobic alkane-degrading microorganisms, it was hypothesized that distinct Bay sediment communities, governed by geochemical gradients, would have intrinsic alkane-utilizing potential under sulfate-reducing and/or methanogenic conditions. Sediment cores were collected along a transect of the Bay. Community DNA was interrogated via pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes, PCR of anaerobic hydrocarbon activation genes, and qPCR of 16S rRNA genes and genes involved in sulfate reduction/methanogenesis. Site sediments were used to establish microcosms amended with n-hexadecane under sulfate-reducing and methanogenic conditions. Sequencing of 16S rRNA genes indicated that sediments associated with hypoxic water columns contained significantly greater proportions of Bacteria and Archaea consistent with syntrophic degradation of organic matter and methanogenesis compared to less reduced sediments. Microbial taxa frequently associated with hydrocarbon-degrading communities were found throughout the Bay, and the genetic potential for hydrocarbon metabolism was demonstrated via the detection of benzyl-(bssA) and alkylsuccinate synthase (assA) genes. Although microcosm studies did not indicate sulfidogenic alkane degradation, the data suggested that methanogenic conversion of alkanes was occurring. These findings highlight the potential role that anaerobic microorganisms could play in the bioremediation of hydrocarbons in the Bay.

Genome Sequence of Youngiibacter fragilis, the Type Strain of the Genus Youngiibacter.

The genome of Youngiibacter fragilis, the type strain of the newly described genus Youngiibacter, was sequenced. The genome consists of 3.996 Mb, with a G+C content of 46.6 mol%. Y. fragilis originates from coal-bed methane-produced water and may provide insight into the microbiological basis of biogas production in coal beds.

A microarray for assessing transcription from pelagic marine microbial taxa.

Metagenomic approaches have revealed unprecedented genetic diversity within microbial communities across vast expanses of the world's oceans. Linking this genetic diversity with key metabolic and cellular activities of microbial assemblages is a fundamental challenge. Here we report on a collaborative effort to design MicroTOOLs (Microbiological Targets for Ocean Observing Laboratories), a high-density oligonucleotide microarray that targets functional genes of diverse taxa in pelagic and coastal marine microbial communities. MicroTOOLs integrates nucleotide sequence information from disparate data types: genomes, PCR-amplicons, metagenomes, and metatranscriptomes. It targets 19 400 unique sequences over 145 different genes that are relevant to stress responses and microbial metabolism across the three domains of life and viruses. MicroTOOLs was used in a proof-of-concept experiment that compared the functional responses of microbial communities following Fe and P enrichments of surface water samples from the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. We detected transcription of 68% of the gene targets across major taxonomic groups, and the pattern of transcription indicated relief from Fe limitation and transition to N limitation in some taxa. Prochlorococcus (eHLI), Synechococcus (sub-cluster 5.3) and Alphaproteobacteria SAR11 clade (HIMB59) showed the strongest responses to the Fe enrichment. In addition, members of uncharacterized lineages also responded. The MicroTOOLs microarray provides a robust tool for comprehensive characterization of major functional groups of microbes in the open ocean, and the design can be easily amended for specific environments and research questions.

Assimilatory nitrate utilization by bacteria on the West Florida Shelf as determined by stable isotope probing and functional microarray analysis.

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) uptake by marine heterotrophic bacteria has important implications for the global nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) cycles. Bacterial nitrate utilization is more prevalent in the marine environment than traditionally thought, but the taxonomic identity of bacteria that utilize nitrate is difficult to determine using traditional methodologies. (15) N-based DNA stable isotope probing was applied to document direct use of nitrate by heterotrophic bacteria on the West Florida Shelf. Seawater was incubated in the presence of 2 µM (15) N ammonium or (15) N nitrate. DNA was extracted, fractionated via CsCl ultracentrifugation, and each fraction was analyzed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) analysis. TRFs that exhibited density shifts when compared to controls that had not received (15) N amendments were identified by comparison with 16S rRNA gene sequence libraries. Relevant marine proteobacterial lineages, notably Thalassobacter and Alteromonadales, displayed evidence of (15) N incorporation. RT-PCR and functional gene microarray analysis could not demonstrate the expression of the assimilatory nitrate reductase gene, nasA, but mRNA for dissimilatory pathways, i.e. nirS, nirK, narG, nosZ, napA, and nrfA was detected. These data directly implicate several bacterial populations in nitrate uptake, but suggest a more complex pattern for N flow than traditionally implied.

Field and laboratory studies on the bioconversion of coal to methane in the San Juan Basin.

The bioconversion of coal to methane in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico, was investigated. Production waters were analyzed via enrichment studies, metabolite-profiling, and culture-independent methods. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated the presence of methanogens potentially capable of acetoclastic, hydrogenotrophic, and methylotrophic metabolisms, predominantly belonging to the Methanosarcinales and Methanomicrobiales. Incubations of produced water and coal readily produced methane, but there was no correlation between the thermal maturity and methanogenesis. Coal methanogenesis was greater when samples with a greater richness of Firmicutes were utilized. A greater archaeal diversity was observed in the presence of several aromatic and short-chain fatty acid metabolites. Incubations amended with lactate, hydrogen, formate, and short-chain alcohols produced methane above un-amended controls. Methanogenesis from acetate was not observed. Metabolite profiling showed the widespread occurrence of putative aromatic ring intermediates including benzoate, toluic acids, phthalic acids, and cresols. The detection of saturated and unsaturated alkylsuccinic acids indicated n-alkane and cyclic alkane/alkene metabolism. Microarray analysis complemented observations based on hybridization to functional genes related to the anaerobic metabolism of aromatic and aliphatic substrates. These data suggest that coal methanogenesis is unlikely to be limited by methanogen biomass, but rather the activation and degradation of coal constituents.

Rapid, colorimetric quantification of lipid from algal cultures.

Algae have significant potential as a source of biomass for the production of biofuels, due to their high growth rates and high cellular lipid content. Studies that address the use of algae as biofuels often require the frequent measurement of algal lipid content. Traditional methods for the quantification of lipid are, however, costly if sub-contracted, or involve the use of expensive analytical equipment that is not available in many labs. This study describes a simple, colorimetric method for the quantification of algal lipid from small amounts of culture. The technique is derived from a method for the quantification of fatty acids dissolved in chloroform. Algal lipids are saponified to fatty acids and then mixed with a copper reagent. Chloroform-extractable copper soaps of long-chain fatty acids are then colorimetrically measured by the addition of diethyldithiocarbamate to develop a yellow colored product. Linear responses for fatty acids in the range of C10:0 to C16:0 were observed for a concentration range between 0.025 and 1 micromol of fatty acid per 200 microL of sample. Fatty acids with chain lengths of less than twelve carbons produced significantly reduced signal. Decenoic acid yielded a slightly, but significantly lower signal than decanoic acid indicating that the assay underestimates the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. Lipid contents of Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Chlorella vulgaris CM2 were monitored for eight days during exponential growth to demonstrate the feasibility of the technique as a monitoring methodology. Overall, the method allowed reliable detection and quantification of fatty acid content from 1 to 2 mL of algal culture. Adaptation of the technique to micro-centrifuge format allows assaying 30 samples in less than 2h. Considering reagents and time, the total cost per assay was estimated at less than $5, representing a significant cost savings over traditional lipid quantification procedures.

Biogeography of actinomycete communities and type II polyketide synthase genes in soils collected in New Jersey and Central Asia.

Soil microbial communities are believed to be comprised of thousands of different bacterial species. One prevailing idea is that "everything is everywhere, and the environment selects," implying that all types of bacteria are present in all environments where their growth requirements are met. We tested this hypothesis using actinomycete communities and type II polyketide synthase (PKS) genes found in soils collected from New Jersey and Uzbekistan (n = 91). Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis using actinomycete 16S rRNA and type II PKS genes was employed to determine community profiles. The terminal fragment frequencies in soil samples had a lognormal distribution, indicating that the majority of actinomycete phylotypes and PKS pathways are present infrequently in the environment. Less than 1% of peaks were detected in more than 50% of samples, and as many as 18% of the fragments were unique and detected in only one sample. Actinomycete 16S rRNA fingerprints clustered by country of origin, indicating that unique populations are present in North America and Central Asia. Sequence analysis of type II PKS gene fragments cloned from Uzbek soil revealed 35 novel sequence clades whose levels of identity to genes in the GenBank database ranged from 68 to 92%. The data indicate that actinomycetes are patchily distributed but that distinct populations are present in North American and Central Asia. These results have implications for microbial bioprospecting and indicate that the cosmopolitan actinomycete species and PKS pathways may account for only a small proportion of the total diversity in soil.