A cognitive script perspective on how early caregiving experiences inform adolescent peer relationships and loneliness: A 14-year longitudinal study of Chinese families.

Leveraging data from a longitudinal study of Chinese families (n = 364), this research aims to understand the role of secure base script knowledge as a cognitive mechanism by which early caregiving experiences inform adolescents' friendship quality and feelings of loneliness. Results showed that observed maternal sensitivity at 14 and 24 months old was negatively associated with adolescents' self-reported conflicts with close friends (ß = -0.17, p = 0.044) at 15 years old, and this association was partially mediated by their secure base script knowledge assessed at 10 years old. Further, secure base script knowledge moderated the link between adolescents' friend conflict and feelings of loneliness (ß = -0.15, p = 0.037). The results support a cognitive script perspective on the association between early caregiving experiences and later socio-emotional adjustment. Furthermore, this study adds to the developmental literature that has previously focused on more stringent and authoritarian aspects of parenting in Chinese families, thereby contributing to our understanding of how sensitive and supportive parenting practices contribute to socio-emotional development outside of Western contexts. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Maternal sensitivity during infancy and toddlerhood has a long-term association with adolescents' friendship quality and adolescents' secure base script partially explains the association. First evidence to demonstrate that the secure base script in attachment relationships mediates the association between early maternal caregiving and socio-emotional development in Chinese adolescents. Adolescents lacking secure base script knowledge are particularly vulnerable to feelings of loneliness when facing high levels of conflict in close friendships.

Question asking in active listening scale for early adolescents: Behavioral measure development and initial validation.

Relational theories of human development explain how stereotypes and their underlying ideologies thwart social connections that are fundamental for individuals to thrive, especially in early adolescence. Intervention research to address this crisis of connection is still emergent and active listening is one promising strategy to this end; however, its efficacy has not been examined in part because no validated measures of active listening for this population exist. This validation study is the first to examine whether the behavioral dimensions of one form of active listening can be captured using a coding scheme to assess adolescents' engagement in a live interviewing task (N = 293). Importantly, the measure was developed within the context of a theory-driven intervention to train adolescents in transformative curiosity and listening to enhance connection. Findings indicate that two dimensions underlie the measure as hypothesized, open-ended questions and follow-up questions, with acceptable internal consistency. The measure is sensitive to change in adolescents' questioning skills before and after the intervention. Further, asking follow-up questions was positively related to empathy and also predicted a respondent's perception of their interviewer as a good listener. The effect for asking open-ended questions was moderated by dyad-level tendencies to elicit disclosure from others. The current measure not only examines question asking as a more nuanced behavioral dimension of active listening than previous measures, it is also the first to do so among a sample of early adolescents. The measure will be useful in assessing active listening interventions' efficacy to address the crisis of connection.

Prospective within-family bidirectional effects between parental emotion socialization practices and Chinese adolescents' psychosocial adjustment.

Previous research indicates that parental emotion socialization (ES) practices play important roles in adolescents' social and emotional development. However, longitudinal studies testing bidirectional effects are relatively scarce. Additionally, most studies have focused on people from Western societies. In the current 3-year, multi-informant, longitudinal study of Chinese adolescents and their parents, we investigated prospective bidirectional effects between parental positive ES practices and adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (i.e., self-esteem and depressive symptoms). Adolescents (N = 710 at T1, 50% boys, Mage = 12.41, SD = 0.59) reported on parental positive ES practices and their own depressive symptoms and self-esteem when they were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grade. Mothers and fathers reported on their own use of positive ES practices at all three time points. We utilized a random intercept cross-lagged panel model to examine between- and within-family effects. Overall results showed robust effects of adolescent depressive symptoms on parental positive ES practices and bidirectional effects between parental ES and adolescent self-esteem. Effects differed by informants whether using adolescent-perceived data, or mother- or father-reported data. However, these child effects and bidirectional effects did not differ by adolescent sex. Our findings add to the understanding of parental ES and adolescent psychosocial adjustment.

The Associations between Contextual and Cultural Stressors, Internalizing Symptoms, and Social Support.

The current study aims to examine the associations between neighborhood safety, racial-ethnic discrimination, and depressive symptoms, as well as explore social support as a protective factor using the Minority Stress Model for three different BIPOC groups (i.e. African American, Puerto Rican, and Dominican). African American and Latino youth living in urban environments often encounter multiple stressors at the same time, and it is critical to learn more about how these stressors influence well-being in tandem. The results showed that among African American youth safety concerns were associated with depressive symptoms while discrimination was associated with Latino youth's depressive symptoms.

White Families' Communications About and Around Race: Conversations Between white Adolescents and Their Mothers.

Though there is substantial research on racial socialization in families of color, there is less on such socialization in white families. To investigate racial socialization in white families, the current study analyzed mixed-methods data from 46 mother-adolescent dyads. Though white parents and their adolescent children largely claimed to not talk about race, they in fact communicated about and around race through various strategies that in effect, maintained white privilege and failed to challenge systems of racial oppression. Very few families in our sample discussed racial discrimination or white privilege, and fewer rooted both at the systems level. Our results highlight situations that prompt conversations about race as well as the ways white families talk about and around race and white privilege.

Lessons of Resistance from Black Mothers to their Black Sons.

In negotiating the anti-Black oppression, Black mothers communicate lessons of resistance in their racial socialization messages to their Black adolescent boys. We investigate whether distinct strategies of resistance for survival, characterized by individual-focused immediate strategies of resistance, and resistance for liberation, strategies of resistance that disrupt systems of anti-Black oppression rooted in furthering collective Black empowerment, are employed in Black mothers' messages to their sons. In this manuscript, we use longitudinal data of Black mothers' of adolescent boys interviews (N = 31) across three time points (6th-11th grade). Our findings indicate the presence of various strategies of resistance for survival and resistance for liberation within Black mothers' preparation for bias socialization.

Inter-Relations Between Ethnic-Racial Discrimination and Ethnic-Racial Identity Among Early Adolescents.

The authors examined whether the longitudinal inter-relations between ethnic-racial discrimination and ethnic-racial identity vary according to the perpetrator of discrimination. The authors used three waves of data from early adolescents (n = 387; ages 11-12 at Wave 1) to assess the strength and direction of relations between perceived discrimination from non-school adults and peers vis-à-vis ethnic-racial identity exploration, commitment, private regard, and public regard. Cross-lagged autoregressive path analyses showed that more frequent discrimination, regardless of source, had reciprocal and significant longitudinal inter-relations with exploration and public regard. Peer discrimination predicted lower commitment and private regard 1 year later, whereas non-school adult discrimination did not. Implications are discussed in relation to the role of peers and ethnic-racial identity processes.

"We're Supposed to Look Like Girls, But Act Like Boys": Adolescent Girls' Adherence to Masculinity Norms.

In the ecological systems perspective, gender ideologies are part of the macrosystem that shapes human development. A growing literature indicates that youth accommodate and resist such ideologies, with adherence to masculinity norms being linked with negative adjustment. Most masculinity research focuses on boys' adherence to masculinity, but girls are also pressured to uphold masculinity norms. Using mixed modeling, we examined girls' adherence to masculinity and psychological (self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and social (peer support and conflict) well-being in the United States (N = 407; Mage  = 12.28) and China (N = 356; Mage  = 12.41). In both countries, adherence to masculinity was negatively associated with psychosocial well-being. Chinese girls reported greater masculinity adherence, but associations with psychosocial well-being were not moderated by nationality.

Racial/ethnic differences in mothers' socialization goals for their adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: We explored the socialization goals that African American, Latino, Chinese and White mothers held for their adolescents within 4 domains that are centrally relevant during adolescence-proper demeanor, academics, race/ethnicity, and peers. METHOD: A card sort task and subsequent logistic regression analyses were used to explore mothers' choice of the most important socialization goals for their ethnically/racially diverse 6th-grade adolescents (N = 185). RESULTS: Compared to White mothers, African American, Latino, and Chinese mothers were significantly more likely to select proper demeanor goals that emphasize deference over benevolence, and peer goals that emphasize instrumental over relational friendships. African American and Latino mothers were more likely to select race/ethnicity goals that emphasize cultural over egalitarian goals compared to Chinese and White mothers. All mothers were more likely to select academic engagement as more important than performance. In contrast to mothers' emphases within domains, mothers' ranked the importance of these different domains remarkably similarly. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers' socialization goals illustrate both similarities and differences across race/ethnicity. Findings are discussed with reference to how mothers' goals reflect broad cultural orientations as well as the contextual demands of their adolescents' experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record

Trajectories of Discrimination Across Adolescence: Associations With Academic, Psychological, and Behavioral Outcomes.

The authors explored trajectories of perceived discrimination over a 6-year period (five assessments in 6th-11th grade) in relation to academic, behavioral, and psychological adjustment in 8th and 11th grades. They distinguished discrimination from adults versus peers in addition to overt versus covert discrimination from peers. The sample included 226 African American, White, Dominican, Puerto Rican, and Chinese adolescents (ages 11-12 at Time 1) recruited in sixth grade from six public schools in New York City. All forms of discrimination increased during middle school and decreased during high school. The frequency with which adolescents reported different sources and types of discrimination varied across ethnicity/race, but not gender. Initial levels and rates of change in discrimination predicted academic, behavioral, and psychological adjustment in 8th and 11th grades, albeit in complex ways.

Racial and gender identity among Black adolescent males: an intersectionality perspective.

A considerable amount of social identity research has focused on race and racial identity, while gender identity, particularly among Black adolescents, remains underexamined. The current study used survey data from 183 Black adolescent males (13-16 years old) to investigate the development and relation between racial and gender identity centrality and private regard, and how these identities impact adjustment over time. It was found that dimensions of racial and gender identity were strongly correlated. Levels of racial centrality increased over time while gender centrality, and racial and gender private regard declined. In addition, racial and gender identity uniquely contributed to higher levels of psychological well-being and academic adjustment. These findings are discussed within the context of existing identity theories and intersectionality theory.

Trajectories of ethnic-racial discrimination among ethnically diverse early adolescents: associations with psychological and social adjustment.

Using longitudinal data, the authors assessed 585 Dominican, Chinese, and African American adolescents (Grades 6-8, M(age) at W1 = 11.83) to determine patterns over time of perceived ethnic-racial discrimination from adults and peers; if these patterns varied by gender, ethnicity, and immigrant status; and whether they are associated with psychological (self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and social (friend and teacher relationship quality, school belonging) adjustment. Two longitudinal patterns for adult discrimination and three longitudinal patterns for peer discrimination were identified using a semiparametric mixture model. These trajectories were distinct with regard to the initial level, shape, and changes in discrimination. Trajectories varied by gender and ethnicity and were significantly linked to psychological and social adjustment. Directions for future research and practice are discussed.

The association between 5-HTTLPR gene polymorphism and behavioral inhibition in Chinese toddlers.

As one of the fundamental individual characteristics, behavioral inhibition in early childhood has considerable implications for the development of social, cognitive, and psychological adjustment. The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and behavioral inhibition in Chinese children using a cross-sectional design. A sample of 263 2-year-old children (134 boys and 129 girls of Han ethnicity; ages ranging from 24 to 26 months) in China participated in the study. Behavioral inhibition was assessed through laboratory observations, and genomic DNA was collected with buccal swabs. The results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicated that the homozygous short 5-HTTLPR allele was associated with lower levels of behavioral inhibition, which was different from most of the findings based on individuals in Western countries. The results suggest that social and cultural factors may be involved in shaping links between the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and children's specific behaviors.

Developmental antecedents of adherence to masculinity norms: A 9-year longitudinal study of urban Chinese families.

A growing body of literature shows that adherence to some aspects of Western masculinity norms, including the suppression of emotional vulnerability, avoidance of seeking support from others, and exaggerated physical toughness, is associated with poorer psychological and social outcomes. While existing research suggests that parental gender beliefs and caregiving behaviors might influence the development of children's gendered behaviors, little is known about the developmental origins of individual differences in adherence to masculinity norms. The current study aims to address this gap and presents a longitudinal investigation of how parental gender beliefs and maternal sensitivity during infancy contribute to children's adherence to masculinity norms during middle childhood. Data were drawn from a mixed-method 9-year longitudinal study of 374 urban Chinese families (48.40% with daughters). Parental gender beliefs were assessed at 24 months, maternal sensitivity was assessed with mother-child interaction observations at 14 and 24 months, and children's self-reported adherence to masculinity norms were assessed at age 10 years. Results indicate that while parental gender beliefs had no associations with children's adherence to masculinity norms, maternal sensitivity predicted children's adherence to masculinity norms (ß = -.18, p = .008) above and beyond parental gender beliefs and parental education level; moreover, there was a significant interaction of sex on the effect of maternal sensitivity on children's adherence to masculinity (ß = -.23, p = .025), and the association was significant only for boys. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Large-scale economic change and youth development: the case of urban China.

This chapter considers how large-scale economic change in urban China affects youth development and outlines developmental mechanisms and labor-market moderators.

The association between infants' self-regulatory behavior and MAOA gene polymorphism.

Self-regulatory behavior in early childhood is an important characteristic that has considerable implications for the development of adaptive and maladaptive functioning. The present study investigated the relations between a functional polymorphism in the upstream region of monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) and self-regulatory behavior in a sample of Chinese infants at 6 months of age. Self-regulation was assessed by observing infants' behavior of orienting visual attention away from a threatening event in the laboratory situation. The results indicated that regulatory behavior was associated with the functional MAOA gene polymorphism in girls, but not boys. Girls with 4/4 genotypes displayed significantly higher regulation than girls with 3/3 and 3/4 genotypes. The present study provided evidence for gender differences on the role of MAOA gene polymorphism in socioemotional functioning in the early years.

Autonomy- and connectedness-oriented behaviors of toddlers and mothers at different historical times in urban China.

This study examined toddlers' autonomy- and connectedness-oriented behaviors and mothers' encouragement of autonomy and connectedness in two cohorts (1995 and 2008) in urban China. Observational data were collected from Chinese children and their mothers in a laboratory free play session. The results showed that compared with children in the 1995 cohort (207 children, 95 boys, Mage = 24.09 months), children in the 2008 cohort (281 children, 144 boys, Mage = 24.34 months) displayed fewer connectedness-oriented behaviors and spent more time on autonomous activities. Compared with mothers in the 1995 cohort (45% with a college education), mothers in the 2008 cohort (43.4% with a college education) were less likely to display involvement in children's activities and more likely to encourage child autonomy. The results suggest that macrolevel contexts may play an important role in shaping parenting and children's behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The influence of student perceptions of school climate on socioemotional and academic adjustment: a comparison of chinese and american adolescents.

This study explored students' perceptions of 3 dimensions of school climate (teacher support, student-student support, and opportunities for autonomy in the classroom) and the associations between these dimensions and adolescent psychological and academic adjustment in China and the United States. Data were drawn from 2 studies involving 706 middle school students (M = 12.26) from Nanjing, China, and 709 middle school students (M = 12.36) from New York City. Findings revealed that students in China perceived higher levels of teacher support, student-student support, and opportunities for autonomy in the classroom than students in the United States. Furthermore, students' perceptions of teacher support and student-student support were positively associated with adolescents' self-esteem and grade point average but negatively associated with depressive symptoms for both Chinese and American adolescents.

The role of mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of ethnic-racial socialization in shaping ethnic-racial identity among early adolescent boys and girls.

The current study examined relationships between adolescents' and mothers' reports of ethnic-racial socialization and adolescents' ethnic-racial identity. The sample included 170 sixth graders (49% boys, 51% girls) and their mothers, all of whom identified as Black, Puerto Rican, Dominican, or Chinese. Two dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization and preparation for bias) were evaluated alongside three dimensions of ethnic-racial identity (exploration, affirmation and belonging, and behavioral engagement). Mothers' reports of their cultural socialization predicted adolescents' reports, but only adolescents' reports predicted adolescents' ethnic-racial identity processes. Mothers' reports of preparation for bias predicted boys' but not girls' reports of preparation for bias. Again, only adolescents' reports of preparation for bias predicted their ethnic-racial identity. Thus, several gender differences in relationships emerged, with mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of cultural socialization, in particular, playing a more important role in girls' than in boys' identity processes. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research.

Challenges to Diabetes Self-Management in Emerging Adults With Type 1 Diabetes.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study undergirded by Meleis's Transition Framework was to explore developmental, situational, and organizational challenges experienced by a diverse group of emerging adults (18-29 years old) with type 1 diabetes (T1DM). Their perspectives on creating a developmentally informed diabetes self-management (DSM) program that supports transitional care were also explored. METHODS: A purposive sample of emerging adults with T1DM was recruited from the pediatric and adult diabetes clinics of an urban academic medical center. Those who consented participated in either a single focus group or a single interview. Self-reported demographic and clinical information was also collected. RESULTS: The sample was comprised of 21 emerging adults, with an average age of 23.6 ± 2.6 years, diabetes duration of 14.7 ± 5.0 years, and 71% female. Four main themes emerged: (1) finding a balance between diabetes and life, (2) the desire to be in control of their diabetes, (3) the hidden burden of diabetes, and (4) the desire to have a connection with their diabetes provider. Use of insulin pumps and continuous glucose monitors and attendance at diabetes camp decreased some of the DSM challenges. Different groups of individuals had different perspectives on living with diabetes and different approaches to DSM. CONCLUSIONS: The emerging adults in this study had a strong desire to be in good glycemic control. However, all participants described having a hard time balancing DSM with other competing life priorities. They also desired personalized patient-provider interactions with their diabetes care provider in clinical follow-up services. Even though the study sample was small, important themes emerged that warrant further exploration.