A Neutrophil Timer Coordinates Immune Defense and Vascular Protection.

Neutrophils eliminate pathogens efficiently but can inflict severe damage to the host if they over-activate within blood vessels. It is unclear how immunity solves the dilemma of mounting an efficient anti-microbial defense while preserving vascular health. Here, we identify a neutrophil-intrinsic program that enabled both. The gene Bmal1 regulated expression of the chemokine CXCL2 to induce chemokine receptor CXCR2-dependent diurnal changes in the transcriptional and migratory properties of circulating neutrophils. These diurnal alterations, referred to as neutrophil aging, were antagonized by CXCR4 (C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4) and regulated the outer topology of neutrophils to favor homeostatic egress from blood vessels at night, resulting in boosted anti-microbial activity in tissues. Mice engineered for constitutive neutrophil aging became resistant to infection, but the persistence of intravascular aged neutrophils predisposed them to thrombo-inflammation and death. Thus, diurnal compartmentalization of neutrophils, driven by an internal timer, coordinates immune defense and vascular protection.

Rhythmic modulation of the hematopoietic niche through neutrophil clearance.

Unique among leukocytes, neutrophils follow daily cycles of release from and migration back into the bone marrow, where they are eliminated. Because removal of dying cells generates homeostatic signals, we explored whether neutrophil elimination triggers circadian events in the steady state. Here, we report that the homeostatic clearance of neutrophils provides cues that modulate the physiology of the bone marrow. We identify a population of CD62L(LO) CXCR4(HI) neutrophils that have "aged" in the circulation and are eliminated at the end of the resting period in mice. Aged neutrophils infiltrate the bone marrow and promote reductions in the size and function of the hematopoietic niche. Modulation of the niche depends on macrophages and activation of cholesterol-sensing nuclear receptors and is essential for the rhythmic egress of hematopoietic progenitors into the circulation. Our results unveil a process that synchronizes immune and hematopoietic rhythms and expand the ascribed functions of neutrophils beyond inflammation. PAPERFLICK:

Sex Hormones Coordinate Neutrophil Immunity in the Vagina by Controlling Chemokine Gradients.

Estradiol-based contraceptives and hormonal replacement therapy predispose women to Candida albicans infections. Moreover, during the ovulatory phase (high estradiol), neutrophil numbers decrease in the vaginal lumen and increase during the luteal phase (high progesterone). Vaginal secretions contain chemokines that drive neutrophil migration into the lumen. However, their expression during the ovarian cycle or in response to hormonal treatments are controversial and their role in vaginal defense remains unknown.To investigate the transepithelial migration of neutrophils, we used adoptive transfer of Cxcr2(-/-) neutrophils and chemokine immunofluorescence quantitative analysis in response to C. albicans vaginal infection in the presence of hormones.Our data show that the Cxcl1/Cxcr2 axis drives neutrophil transepithelial migration into the vagina. Progesterone promotes the Cxcl1 gradient to favor neutrophil migration. Estradiol disrupts the Cxcl1 gradient and favors neutrophil arrest in the vaginal stroma; as a result, the vagina becomes more vulnerable to pathogens.

The molecular and cellular basis of taste coding in the legs of Drosophila.

To understand the principles of taste coding, it is necessary to understand the functional organization of the taste organs. Although the labellum of the Drosophila melanogaster head has been described in detail, the tarsal segments of the legs, which collectively contain more taste sensilla than the labellum, have received much less attention. We performed a systematic anatomical, physiological, and molecular analysis of the tarsal sensilla of Drosophila. We construct an anatomical map of all five tarsal segments of each female leg. The taste sensilla of the female foreleg are systematically tested with a panel of 40 diverse compounds, yielding a response matrix of ∼500 sensillum-tastant combinations. Six types of sensilla are characterized. One type was tuned remarkably broadly: it responded to 19 of 27 bitter compounds tested, as well as sugars; another type responded to neither. The midleg is similar but distinct from the foreleg. The response specificities of the tarsal sensilla differ from those of the labellum, as do n-dimensional taste spaces constructed for each organ, enhancing the capacity of the fly to encode and respond to gustatory information. We examined the expression patterns of all 68 gustatory receptors (Grs). A total of 28 Gr-GAL4 drivers are expressed in the legs. We constructed a receptor-to-sensillum map of the legs and a receptor-to-neuron map. Fourteen Gr-GAL4 drivers are expressed uniquely in the bitter-sensing neuron of the sensillum that is tuned exceptionally broadly. Integration of the molecular and physiological maps provides insight into the underlying basis of taste coding.

Brief report: reduced expression of CD18 leads to the in vivo expansion of hematopoietic stem cells in mouse bone marrow.

Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type-I is a primary immunodeficiency caused by mutations in the ITGB2 gene (CD18 leukocyte integrin) which lead to defects in leukocyte extravasation. To investigate the role of CD18 in hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) biology, we have thoroughly characterized the HSCs of CD18 Itgb2(tm1bay) hypomorphic mice (CD18(HYP) ) both by flow cytometry and using in vitro and in vivo transplantation assays. Flow cytometry analyses and cultures in methyl cellulose revealed that bone marrow (BM) from CD18(HYP) mice was enriched in hematopoietic precursors, mainly early quiescent short-term and long-term Hematopoietic progenitors cells. Strikingly, BM competition assays showed a progressive expansion of CD18(HYP) -derived hematopoiesis in recipient mice. Additionally, we provide evidence that this HSC expansion was not caused by an increased homing capacity of CD18(HYP) HSCs or by alterations in the hematopoietic environment of CD18(HYP) mice due to defects in neutrophils clearance. On the contrary, our data demonstrated that the reduced expression of CD18 causes a cell-autonomous expansion in the HSC compartment, thus revealing unexpected regulatory functions for CD18 in mouse HSCs.

UPF1 regulates mRNA stability by sensing poorly translated coding sequences.

Post-transcriptional mRNA regulation shapes gene expression, yet how cis-elements and mRNA translation interface to regulate mRNA stability is poorly understood. We find that the strength of translation initiation, upstream open reading frame (uORF) content, codon optimality, AU-rich elements, microRNA binding sites, and open reading frame (ORF) length function combinatorially to regulate mRNA stability. Machine-learning analysis identifies ORF length as the most important conserved feature regulating mRNA decay. We find that Upf1 binds poorly translated and untranslated ORFs, which are associated with a higher decay rate, including mRNAs with uORFs and those with exposed ORFs after stop codons. Our study emphasizes Upf1's converging role in surveilling mRNAs with exposed ORFs that are poorly translated, such as mRNAs with long ORFs, ORF-like 3' UTRs, and mRNAs containing uORFs. We propose that Upf1 regulation of poorly/untranslated ORFs provides a unifying mechanism of surveillance in regulating mRNA stability and homeostasis in an exon-junction complex (EJC)-independent nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway that we term ORF-mediated decay (OMD).

CUX1-related neurodevelopmental disorder: deep insights into phenotype-genotype spectrum and underlying pathology.

Heterozygous, pathogenic CUX1 variants are associated with global developmental delay or intellectual disability. This study delineates the clinical presentation in an extended cohort and investigates the molecular mechanism underlying the disorder in a Cux1+/- mouse model. Through international collaboration, we assembled the phenotypic and molecular information for 34 individuals (23 unpublished individuals). We analyze brain CUX1 expression and susceptibility to epilepsy in Cux1+/- mice. We describe 34 individuals, from which 30 were unrelated, with 26 different null and four missense variants. The leading symptoms were mild to moderate delayed speech and motor development and borderline to moderate intellectual disability. Additional symptoms were muscular hypotonia, seizures, joint laxity, and abnormalities of the forehead. In Cux1+/- mice, we found delayed growth, histologically normal brains, and increased susceptibility to seizures. In Cux1+/- brains, the expression of Cux1 transcripts was half of WT animals. Expression of CUX1 proteins was reduced, although in early postnatal animals significantly more than in adults. In summary, disease-causing CUX1 variants result in a non-syndromic phenotype of developmental delay and intellectual disability. In some individuals, this phenotype ameliorates with age, resulting in a clinical catch-up and normal IQ in adulthood. The post-transcriptional balance of CUX1 expression in the heterozygous brain at late developmental stages appears important for this favorable clinical course.

Molecular and cellular organization of the taste system in the Drosophila larva.

We examine the molecular and cellular basis of taste perception in the Drosophila larva through a comprehensive analysis of the expression patterns of all 68 Gustatory receptors (Grs). Gr-GAL4 lines representing each Gr are examined, and 39 show expression in taste organs of the larval head, including the terminal organ (TO), the dorsal organ (DO), and the pharyngeal organs. A receptor-to-neuron map is constructed. The map defines 10 neurons of the TO and DO, and it identifies 28 receptors that map to them. Each of these neurons expresses a unique subset of Gr-GAL4 drivers, except for two neurons that express the same complement. All of these neurons express at least two drivers, and one neuron expresses 17. Many of the receptors map to only one of these cells, but some map to as many as six. Conspicuously absent from the roster of Gr-GAL4 drivers expressed in larvae are those of the sugar receptor subfamily. Coexpression analysis suggests that most larval Grs act in bitter response and that there are distinct bitter-sensing neurons. A comprehensive analysis of central projections confirms that sensory information collected from different regions (e.g., the tip of the head vs the pharynx) is processed in different regions of the suboesophageal ganglion, the primary taste center of the CNS. Together, the results provide an extensive view of the molecular and cellular organization of the larval taste system.

Spatial regulation of developmental signaling by a serpin.

An extracellular serine protease cascade generates the ligand that activates the Toll signaling pathway to establish dorsoventral polarity in the Drosophila embryo. We show here that this cascade is regulated by a serpin-type serine protease inhibitor, which plays an essential role in confining Toll signaling to the ventral side of the embryo. This role is strikingly analogous to the function of the mammalian serpin antithrombin in localizing the blood-clotting cascade, suggesting that serpin inhibition of protease activity may be a general mechanism for achieving spatial control in diverse biological processes.

The crux of Cux genes in neuronal function and plasticity.

Cux1 and Cux2 are the vertebrate members of a family of homeodomain transcription factors (TF) containing Cut repeat DNA-binding sequences. Perturbation of their expression has been implicated in a wide variety of diseases and disorders, ranging from cancer to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Within the nervous system, both genes are expressed during neurogenesis and in specific neuronal subpopulations. Their role during development and circuit specification is discussed here, with a particular focus on the cortex where their restricted expression in pyramidal neurons of the upper layers appears to be responsible for many of the specialized functions of these cells, and where their functions have been extensively investigated. Finally, we discuss how Cux TF represent a promising avenue for manipulating neuronal function and for reprogramming.

Neutrophils instruct homeostatic and pathological states in naive tissues.

Immune protection relies on the capacity of neutrophils to infiltrate challenged tissues. Naive tissues, in contrast, are believed to remain free of these cells and protected from their toxic cargo. Here, we show that neutrophils are endowed with the capacity to infiltrate multiple tissues in the steady-state, a process that follows tissue-specific dynamics. By focusing in two particular tissues, the intestine and the lungs, we find that neutrophils infiltrating the intestine are engulfed by resident macrophages, resulting in repression of Il23 transcription, reduced G-CSF in plasma, and reinforced activity of distant bone marrow niches. In contrast, diurnal accumulation of neutrophils within the pulmonary vasculature influenced circadian transcription in the lungs. Neutrophil-influenced transcripts in this organ were associated with carcinogenesis and migration. Consistently, we found that neutrophils dictated the diurnal patterns of lung invasion by melanoma cells. Homeostatic infiltration of tissues unveils a facet of neutrophil biology that supports organ function, but can also instigate pathological states.

Functional selectin ligands mediating human CD34(+) cell interactions with bone marrow endothelium are enhanced postnatally.

Hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) can home to the bone marrow (BM) after a simple intravenous injection, but the adhesive mechanisms mediating the initial interactions of human HPCs with the BM endothelium have not been evaluated in vivo. Using fluorescence intravital microscopy and homing assays in NOD/SCID mice, we show that endothelial selectins are necessary for human adult CD34(+) cell homing, since rolling on BM endothelium and retention in the BM compartment are drastically reduced (>90%) in endothelial selectin-deficient NOD/SCID mice. Comparative analyses of CD34(+) cells collected from adults and from cord blood (CB) reveal that neonatal cells display reduced rolling fractions compared with adult CD34(+) cells obtained from peripheral blood or BM, suggesting abnormal selectin ligand function on neonatal progenitors. Flow cytometric and intravital microscopy studies suggest that this defect results from nonfunctional P-selectin ligand on a subset ( approximately 30%) of neonatal CD34(+) cells. Further analyses indicate that P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) is expressed in a nonfunctional form among neonatal CD34(+) cells that do not bind P-selectin and that this subset is enriched in primitive CD34(+)CD38(lo/-) progenitors. These results underscore the potential to improve homing of CB CD34(+) cells to the BM by manipulation of selectins and their ligands.

IGF-1 receptor regulates dynamic changes in neuronal polarity during cerebral cortical migration.

During cortical development, neurons undergo polarization, oriented migration and layer-type differentiation. The biological and biochemical mechanisms underlying these processes are not completely understood. In neurons in culture we showed that IGF-1 receptor activation is important for growth cone assembly and axonal formation. However, the possible roles of the insulin like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) on neuronal differentiation and polarization in vivo in mammals have not yet been studied. Using in utero electroporation, we show here that the IGF-1R is essential for neocortical development. Neurons electroporated with a shRNA targeting IGF-1 receptor failed to migrate to the upper cortical layers and accumulated at the ventricular/subventricular zones. Co-electroporation with a constitutively active form of PI3K rescued migration. The change of the morphology from multipolar to bipolar cells was also attenuated. Cells lacking the IGF-1 receptor remain arrested as multipolar forming a highly disorganized tissue. The typical orientation of the migrating neurons with the Golgi complex oriented toward the cortical upper layers was also affected by electroporation with shRNA targeting IGF-1 receptor. Finally, cells electroporated with the shRNA targeting IGF-1 receptor were unable to form an axon and, therefore, neuron polarity was absent.

Cux1 Enables Interhemispheric Connections of Layer II/III Neurons by Regulating Kv1-Dependent Firing.

Neuronal subtype-specific transcription factors (TFs) instruct key features of neuronal function and connectivity. Activity-dependent mechanisms also contribute to wiring and circuit assembly, but whether and how they relate to TF-directed neuronal differentiation is poorly investigated. Here we demonstrate that the TF Cux1 controls the formation of the layer II/III corpus callosum (CC) projections through the developmental transcriptional regulation of Kv1 voltage-dependent potassium channels and the resulting postnatal switch to a Kv1-dependent firing mode. Loss of Cux1 function led to a decrease in the expression of Kv1 transcripts, aberrant firing responses, and selective loss of CC contralateral innervation. Firing and innervation were rescued by re-expression of Kv1 or postnatal reactivation of Cux1. Knocking down Kv1 mimicked Cux1-mediated CC axonal loss. These findings reveal that activity-dependent processes are central bona fide components of neuronal TF-differentiation programs and establish the importance of intrinsic firing modes in circuit assembly within the neocortex.

Innate immune cells as homeostatic regulators of the hematopoietic niche.

Two cellular systems of paramount importance for mammalian physiology, the myeloid and the hematopoietic, have received a great deal of attention in the past decade. Myeloid leukocytes, classically involved in mediating innate immune responses, are now known to regulate other important aspects of the organism's physiology, from development to regulation of metabolic functions. In parallel, many diverse cellular and molecular components have been identified in the bone marrow (BM) that are required for the regulation and lifelong preservation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPC). Since the production of blood and immune elements by these multipotent cells responds to environmental signals, it is not entirely surprising that the hematopoietic niches in which HSPC are located can in turn be regulated by the immune system. We review here recent evidence demonstrating that two components of the innate immune system, macrophages and neutrophils, regulate the function of the hematopoietic niche in ways that may favor both the retention and the release of HSPC from the BM. We propose that the highly migratory nature of neutrophils, the presence of a network of tissue-resident macrophages in the BM and possibly in other tissues, and the superb capacity of these innate immune cells to respond to stress endow them with regulatory functions that are ultimately relayed to the hematopoietic niche.

A map of taste neuron projections in the Drosophila CNS.

We provide a map of the projections of taste neurons in the CNS of Drosophila. Using a collection of 67 GAL4 drivers representing the entire repertoire of Gr taste receptors, we systematically map the projections of neurons expressing these drivers in the thoracico-abdominal ganglion and the suboesophageal ganglion (SOG). We define 9 categories of projections in the thoracico-abdominal ganglia and 10 categories in the SOG. The projection patterns are modular, and can be interpreted as combinations of discrete pattern elements. The elements can be interpreted in terms of the taste organ from which the projections originate, the structures from which they originate, and the quality of taste information that they represent. The extensive diversity in projection patterns provides an anatomical basis for functional diversity in responses elicited by different taste stimuli.

The molecular and cellular basis of bitter taste in Drosophila.

The extent of diversity among bitter-sensing neurons is a fundamental issue in the field of taste. Data are limited and conflicting as to whether bitter neurons are broadly tuned and uniform, resulting in indiscriminate avoidance of bitter stimuli, or diverse, allowing a more discerning evaluation of food sources. We provide a systematic analysis of how bitter taste is encoded by the major taste organ of the Drosophila head, the labellum. Each of 16 bitter compounds is tested physiologically against all 31 taste hairs, revealing responses that are diverse in magnitude and dynamics. Four functional classes of bitter neurons are defined. Four corresponding classes are defined through expression analysis of all 68 gustatory taste receptors. A receptor-to-neuron-to-tastant map is constructed. Misexpression of one receptor confers bitter responses as predicted by the map. These results reveal a degree of complexity that greatly expands the capacity of the system to encode bitter taste.

The molecular basis of CO2 reception in Drosophila.

CO(2) elicits a response from many insects, including mosquito vectors of diseases such as malaria and yellow fever, but the molecular basis of CO(2) detection is unknown in insects or other higher eukaryotes. Here we show that Gr21a and Gr63a, members of a large family of Drosophila seven-transmembrane-domain chemoreceptor genes, are coexpressed in chemosensory neurons of both the larva and the adult. The two genes confer CO(2) response when coexpressed in an in vivo expression system, the "empty neuron system." The response is highly specific for CO(2) and dependent on CO(2) concentration. The response shows an equivalent dependence on the dose of Gr21a and Gr63a. None of 39 other chemosensory receptors confers a comparable response to CO(2). The identification of these receptors may now allow the identification of agents that block or activate them. Such agents could affect the responses of insect pests to the humans they seek.

Primary role for adherent leukocytes in sickle cell vascular occlusion: a new paradigm.

Vascular occlusion is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in sickle cell disease but its mechanisms are poorly understood. We demonstrate by using intravital microscopy in mice expressing human sickle hemoglobin (SS) that SS red blood cells (RBCs) bind to adherent leukocytes in inflamed venules, producing vasoocclusion of cremasteric venules. SS mice deficient in P- and E-selectins, which display defective leukocyte recruitment to the vessel wall, are protected from vasoocclusion. These data uncover a previously unsuspected paradigm for the pathogenesis of sickle cell vasoocclusion in which adherent leukocytes play a direct role and suggest that drugs targeting SS RBC-leukocyte or leukocyte-endothelial interactions may prevent or treat the vascular complications of this debilitating disease.