The effect of power stretchers on occupational injury rates in an urban emergency medical services system.

BACKGROUND: To examine occupational injury rates in a dual-response emergency medical services (EMS) system before and after implementation of a power-lift stretcher system. METHODS: The seasonally-adjusted occupational injury rate was estimated relative to medical call volume (per 1000 calls) and workers (per 100 FTEs) from 2009 to 2019, and stratified by severity (lost-time, healthcare only), role (EMS, FIRE) and type (patient-handling). Power-lift stretchers were adopted between 2013 and 2015. Preinjury versus postinjury rates were compared using binomial tests. Interrupted time series (ITS) analysis was used to estimate the trend and change in injuries related to patient-handling, with occupational illnesses serving as control. RESULTS: Binomial tests revealed varied results, with reductions in the injury rate per 1000 calls (-14.0%) and increases in the rate per 100 FTEs (+14.1%); rates also differed by EMS role and injury severity. ITS analysis demonstrated substantial reductions in patient-handling injuries following implementation of power-lift stretchers, both in the injury rate per 1000 calls (-50.4%) and per 100 FTEs (-46.6%), specifically among individuals deployed on the ambulance. Injury rates were slightly elevated during the winter months (+0.8 per 100 FTEs) and lower during spring (-0.5 per 100 FTEs). CONCLUSIONS: These results support the implementation of power-lift stretchers for injury prevention in EMS systems and demonstrate advantages of ITS analysis when data span long preintervention and postintervention periods.

Head-Neck Motion in Prehospital Trauma Patients under Spinal Motion Restriction: A Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: Spinal precautions are intended to limit motion of potentially unstable spinal segments. The efficacy of various treatment approaches for motion restriction in the cervical spine has been rigorously investigated using healthy volunteers and, to a lesser extent, cadaver samples. No previous studies have objectively measured this motion in trauma patients with potential spine injuries during prehospital care. Objective: The purpose of this study was to characterize head-neck (H-N) kinematics in a sample of trauma patients receiving spinal precautions in the field. Methods: This was a prospective observational study of trauma patients in the prehospital setting. Trauma patients meeting criteria for spinal precautions were eligible for inclusion. Participants received usual care, consisting of either a long backboard, cervical collar, and head blocks (BC) or a cervical collar only (CO), and behavior was categorized as compliant (C) or non-compliant (N). Three inertial measurement units (IMUs), placed on each participant's forehead, sternum, and stretcher, yielded data on H-N motion. Outcomes were described in terms of H-N displacement and acceleration, including single- and multi-planar values, root mean square (RMS), and bouts of continuous motion above pre-determined thresholds. Data were analyzed to compare H-N motion by phase of prehospital care, as well as treatment type and patient behavior. RESULTS: Substantial single- and multi-plane H-N motion was observed among all participants. Maximum single-plane displacements were between 11.3 ± 3.0 degrees (rotation) and 19.0 ± 16.6 degrees (flexion-extension). Maximum multi-plane displacements averaged 31.2 ± 7.2 degrees (range: 7.2 to 82.1 degrees). Maximum multi-plane acceleration averaged 5.8 ± 1.4 m/s2 (range: 1.2 to 19.9 m/s2). There were no significant differences among participants between prehospital phase and treatment type. Non-compliant participants showed significantly more motion than compliant participants. Conclusion: Among actual patients, movement appears to be greater than previously recorded in simulation studies, and to be associated with patient behavior. Miniature IMUs are a feasible approach to field-based measurement of H-N kinematics in trauma patients. Future research should evaluate the effects of patient compliance, treatment, and phase of care using larger samples. Key words: spinal immobilization; cervical spine; cervical collar; long backboard.

Effects of Spinal Immobilization and Spinal Motion Restriction on Head-Neck Kinematics during Ambulance Transport.

Objective: To determine the influence of ambulance motion on head-neck (H-N) kinematics and to compare the effectiveness of two spinal precaution (SP) protocols: spinal immobilization (SI) and spinal motion reduction (SMR). Methods: Eighteen healthy volunteers (7 females) underwent a series of standardized ambulance transport tasks, across various speeds, under the two SP protocols in a balanced order (n = 12 drivers, n = 7 ambulances). Inertial measurement units were placed on participants' heads and sternums, with another affixed to the stretcher mattress frame. Outcome measures included H-N displacement and acceleration. Results: Ambulance accelerations varied across driving tasks (2.5-9.5 m/s2) and speeds (3.0-6.2 m/s2) and resulted in a wide range of H-N displacements (7.2-22.6 deg) and H-N accelerations (1.4-10.9 m/s2). Relative to SMR, SI resulted in reduced H-N motion during turning, accelerating, and speed bumps (1.9-10.7 deg; 0.4-2.6 m/s2), but increased H-N accelerations during abrupt starts/stops and some higher speed tasks (0.4-2.5 m/s2). Ambulance acceleration was moderately correlated to H-N acceleration (r = 0.68) and displacement (r = 0.42). Conclusion: H-N motion was somewhat coupled to ambulance acceleration and varied across a wide range, regardless of SP approach. In general, SI resulted in a modest reduction in H-N displacement and acceleration, with some exceptions. The results inform clinical decisions on SP practice during prehospital transport and demonstrate a novel approach to quantifying H-N motion in prehospital care.

An ED paradox: patients who arrive by ambulance and then leave without consulting an ED provider.

BACKGROUND: Scientists have called for strategies to identify ED patients with unmet needs. We identify the unique profile of ED patients who arrive by ambulance and subsequently leave without consulting a provider (ie, a paradoxical visit, PV). METHODS: Using a retrospective cohort design, administrative data from Winnipeg, Manitoba were interrogated to identify all ED patients 17+ years old as having zero, single or multiple PVs in 2012/2013. Analyses compare the sociodemographic, physical (eg, arthritis), mental (eg, substance abuse) and concurrent healthcare use profile of non-PV, single and multiple PV patients. RESULTS: The study cohort consisted of 122 639 patients with 250 754 ED visits. Across all ED sites, 2.3% of patients (N=2815) made 3387 PVs, comprising 1.4% of all ED visits. Descriptively, more single versus non-PV patients lived in urban core and lowest-income areas, were frequent ED users generally, were substance abusers and had seven plus primary care physician visits. Multiple PV patients had a similar but more extreme profile versus their single PV counterparts (eg, 54.7% of multiple vs 27.4% of single PV patients had substance abuse challenges). From multivariate statistics, single versus non-PV patients are defined uniquely by their frequent ED use, by their substance abuse, as living in a core and low income area, and as having multiple visits with primary care physicians. CONCLUSIONS: PV patients have needs that do not align with the acute model of ED care. These patients may benefit from a more integrated care approach likely involving allied health professionals.

Comparison of Fentanyl and Morphine in the Prehospital Treatment of Ischemic Type Chest Pain.

In the treatment of acute coronary syndromes, reduction of sympathetic stress and catecholamine release is an important therapeutic goal. One method used to achieve this goal is pain reduction through the systemic administration of analgesia. Historically, morphine has been the analgesic of choice in ischemic cardiac pain. This randomized double-blind controlled trial seeks to prove the utility of fentanyl as an alternate first-line analgesic for ischemic-type chest pain in the prehospital setting. Successive patients who were treated for suspected ischemic chest pain in the emergency medical services system were considered eligible. Once chest pain was confirmed, patients received oxygen, aspirin, and nitroglycerin therapy. If the ischemic-type chest pain continued the patient was randomized in a double-blinded fashion to treatment with either morphine or fentanyl. Pain scale scores, necessity for additional dosing, and rate of adverse events between the groups were assessed every 5 minutes and were compared using t-testing, Fisher's Exact test, or Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) where appropriate. The primary outcome of the study was incidence of hypotension and the secondary outcome was pain reduction as measured by the visual analog score and numeric rating score. A total of 207 patients were randomized with 187 patients included in the final analysis. Of the 187 patients, 99 were in the morphine group and 88 in the fentanyl group. No statistically significant difference between the two groups with respect to hypotension was found (morphine 5.1% vs. fentanyl 0%, p = 0.06). Baseline characteristics, necessity for additional dosing, and other adverse events between the two groups were not statistically different. There were no significant differences between the changes in visual analog scores and numeric rating scale scores for pain between the two groups (p = 0.16 and p = 0.15, respectively). This study supports that fentanyl and morphine are comparable in providing analgesia for ischemic-type chest pain. Fentanyl appears to be a safe and effective alternative to morphine for the management of chest pain in the prehospital setting.

Characteristics of evidence-based medicine training in Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada emergency medicine residencies - a national survey of program directors.

BACKGROUND: Recent surveys suggest few emergency medicine (EM) training programs have formal evidence-based medicine (EBM) or journal club curricula. Our primary objective was to describe the methods of EBM training in Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) EM residencies. Secondary objectives were to explore attitudes regarding current educational practices including e-learning, investigate barriers to journal club and EBM education, and assess the desire for national collaboration. METHODS: A 16-question survey containing binary, open-ended, and 5-pt Likert scale questions was distributed to the 14 RCPSC-EM program directors. Proportions of respondents (%), median, and IQR are reported. RESULTS: The response rate was 93% (13/14). Most programs (85%) had established EBM curricula. Curricula content was delivered most frequently via journal club, with 62% of programs having 10 or more sessions annually. Less than half of journal clubs (46%) were led consistently by EBM experts. Four programs did not use a critical appraisal tool in their sessions (31%). Additional teaching formats included didactic and small group sessions, self-directed e-learning, EBM workshops, and library tutorials. 54% of programs operated educational websites with EBM resources. Program directors attributed highest importance to two core goals in EBM training curricula: critical appraisal of medical literature, and application of literature to patient care (85% rating 5 - "most importance", respectively). Podcasts, blogs, and online journal clubs were valued for EBM teaching roles including creating exposure to literature (4, IQR 1.5) and linking literature to clinical practice experience (4, IQR 1.5) (1-no merit, 5-strong merit). Five of thirteen respondents rated lack of expert leadership and trained faculty educators as potential limitations to EBM education. The majority of respondents supported the creation of a national unified EBM educational resource (4, IQR 1) (1-no support, 5- strongly support). CONCLUSIONS: RCPSC-EM programs have established EBM teaching curricula and deliver content most frequently via journal club. A lack of EBM expert educators may limit content delivery at certain sites. Program directors supported the nationalization of EBM educational resources. A growing usage of electronic resources may represent an avenue to link national EBM educational expertise, facilitating future collaborative educational efforts.

Sex and Gender Equity in Prehospital Electrocardiogram Acquisition.

INTRODUCTION: Research in cardiac care has identified significant gender-based differences across many outcomes. Women with heart disease are less likely both to be diagnosed and to receive standard care. Gender-based disparities in the prehospital setting are under-researched, but they were found to exist within rates of 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) acquisition within one urban Emergency Medical Services (EMS) agency. STUDY OBJECTIVE: This study evaluates the quality improvement (QI) initiative that was implemented in that agency to raise overall rates of 12-lead ECG acquisition and reduce the gap in acquisition rates between men and women. METHODS: This QI project included two interventions: revised indications for 12-lead acquisition, and training that highlighted sex- and gender-based differences relevant to patient care. To evaluate this project, a retrospective database review identified all patient contacts that potentially involved cardiac assessment over 18 months. The primary outcome was the rate of 12-lead acquisition among patients with qualifying complaints. This was assessed by mean rates of acquisition in before and after periods, as well as segmented regression in an interrupted time series. Secondary outcomes included differences in rates of 12-lead acquisition, both overall and in individual complaint categories, each compared between men/women and before/after the interventions. RESULTS: Among patients with qualifying complaints, the mean rate of 12-lead acquisition in the lead-in period was 22.5% (95% CI, 21.8% - 23.2%) with no discernible trend. The protocol change and training were each associated with a significant absolute level increase in the acquisition rate: 2.09% (95% CI, 0.21% - 4.0%; P = .03) and 3.2% (95% CI, 1.18% - 5.22%; P = .003), respectively. When compared by gender and time period, women received fewer 12-leads than men overall, and more 12-leads were acquired after the interventions than before. There were also significant interactions between gender and period, both overall (2.8%; 95% CI, 1.9% - 3.6%; P < .0001) and in all complaint categories except falls and heart problems. CONCLUSION: This QI project resulted in an increase in 12-leads acquired. Pre-existing gaps in rates of acquisition between men and women were reduced but did not disappear. On-going research is examining the reasons behind these differences from the perspective of prehospital providers.

STEMI stymie: metastatic cancer and cardiac tamponade presenting as inferior STEMI.

The combination of chest pain and isolated ST-segment elevation on an ECG immediately suggests the diagnosis of myocardial infarction. However, given the potential for complications associated with reperfusion strategies, clinicians must maintain a high index of suspicion for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction mimics, including pericardial disease, in their assessment of these patients. Here we report a case that illustrates a rare presentation in which a patient with isolated inferior ST-segment elevation and acute chest pain suggestive of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction was ultimately diagnosed with cardiac tamponade as the first presentation of an occult malignancy. This case supports the rationale for the use of bedside ultrasonography as a diagnostic modality to include in the evaluation of select cardiac patients and all pulseless electrical activity arrest patients in the emergency department.

Prehospital Application of the Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale by Emergency Medical Services.

OBJECTIVES: Triage is fundamental to emergency patient assessment. Effective triage systems accurately prioritize patients and help predict resource utilization. CTAS is a validated five-level triage score utilized in Emergency Departments (EDs) across Canada and internationally. Historically CTAS has been applied by triage nurses in EDs. Observational evidence suggests that the CTAS might be implemented reliably by paramedics in the prehospital setting. This is the first system-wide assessment of CTAS interrater reliability between paramedics and triage nurses during clinical practice. METHODS: Variables were extracted from hospital and EMS databases. EMS providers determined CTAS on-scene, CTAS pre-transport, and CTAS on-arrival at hospital for each patient (N=14,378). The hospital arrival EMS CTAS (CTAS arrival ) score was compared to the initial nursing CTAS score (CTAS initial ) and the final nursing CTAS score (CTAS final ) incuding nursing overrides. Interrater reliability between ED CTAS initial and EMS CTAS arrival scores was assessed. Interrater reliability between ED CTAS final and EMS CTAS arrival scores, as well as proportion of patient encounters with perfect or near-perfect agreement, were evaluated. RESULTS: Our primary outcome, interrater reliability [kappa=0.437 (p<0.001, 95% CI 0.421-0.452)], indicated moderate agreement. EMS CTAS arrival and ED CTAS initial scores had an exact or within one point match 84.3% of the time. The secondary interrater reliability outcome between hospital arrival EMS CTAS (CTAS arrival ) score and the final ED triage CTAS score (CTAS final ) showed moderate agreement with kappa =0.452 (p<0.001, 95% CI 0.437-0.466). CONCLUSIONS: Interrater reliability of CTAS scoring between triage nurses and paramedics was moderate in this system-wide implementation study.

Pleural disease in the emergency department.

Emergency department presentations of pleural-based diseases are common, with severity ranging from mild to life threatening. The acute assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of pleural disease are critical as urgent invasive maneuvers such as thoracocentesis and thoracostomy may be indicated. The emergency physician must have a systematic approach to these conditions that allows for rapid recognition, diagnosis, and definitive management. This article focuses on nontraumatic pleural disease, including diagnostic and treatment considerations of pleural effusion, empyema, primary spontaneous pneumothorax, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax, pediatric pneumothorax, spontaneous hemothorax, and spontaneous tension pneumothorax.

Frequent users of an inner-city emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Within the emergency department (ED) patient population there is a subset of patients who make frequent visits. This chart review sought to characterize this population and identify strategies to reduce frequent ED visits. METHODS: Frequent use at an urban tertiary care centre was defined as 15 or more visits over 1 year. The details of each visit-demographics, entrance complaint, discharge diagnosis, arrival method, Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS) score, and length of stay-were analyzed and compared to data from the entire ED population for the same period. RESULTS: Ninety-two patients generated 2,390 ED visits (of 25,523 patients and 44,204 visits). This population was predominantly male (66%) and middle-aged (median 42 years), with no fixed address (27.2%). Patients arrived by ambulance in 59.3% of visits with less acute CTAS scores than the general population. Substance use accounted for 26.9% of entrance complaints. Increased lengths of stay were associated with female gender and abnormal vital signs, whereas shorter stays were associated with no fixed address and substance use (. < 0.05). Admissions were lower than the general population, and women were twice as likely as men to be admitted (. < 0.05). Patients left without being seen in 15.8% of visits. CONCLUSIONS: High-frequency ED users are more likely to be male, younger, and marginally housed and to present secondary to substance use. Although admissions among this population are low, the costs associated with these presentations are high. Interventions designed to decrease visits and improve the health of this population appear warranted.

To transmit or not to transmit: how good are emergency medical personnel in detecting STEMI in patients with chest pain?

BACKGROUND: There is growing use of prehospital electrocardiograms (ECGs) in establishing early diagnosis of ST segment myocardial infarction (STEMI) to facilitate early reperfusion. This study aimed to determine the predictive value of prehospital ECGs interpreted by nonphysician emergency medical services (EMS) in chest pain presentations. METHODS: In our city of 658,700 people, EMS/paramedics received 21 hours of instruction on STEMI management, ECG acquisition, and interpretation. Suspected STEMI ECGs were wirelessly transmitted to and discussed with a physician for possible therapy. ECGs deemed negative for STEMI by EMS were not transmitted; patients were transported to the closest hospital without prehospital physician involvement. RESULTS: From July 21, 2008 to July 21, 2010, there were 5426 chest pain calls to EMS, 380 were suspected STEMI cases. The remaining ECGs were deemed negative for STEMI by EMS. To audit the nontransmitted ECGs we analyzed 323 consecutive patients over 2 selected months (January and June 2010) for comparison. Of nontransmitted cases there was 1 missed and 2 STEMIs that developed subsequently. Based on 380 transmitted and 323 nontransmitted cases, the sensitivity and specificity of EMS detecting STEMI were 99.6% and 67.6%, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values for STEMI were 59.5% and 99.7%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate nonphysician EMS interpretation of STEMI on prehospital ECG has excellent sensitivity and high negative predictive value. This finding supports the use of prehospital ECGs interpreted by EMS to help identify and facilitate treatment of STEMI. These results may have broad implications on staffing models for first responder/EMS units.

Cardiac Outcomes Through Digital Evaluation (CODE) STEMI project: prehospital digitally-assisted reperfusion strategies.

BACKGROUND: Guidelines for reperfusion in ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) were recently adopted by the Canadian Cardiovascular Society. We have developed a blended model of prehospital thrombolytic (PHL) therapy or primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI) activation, in order to achieve guideline times. METHODS: In our urban centre of 658,700 people, emergency medical services (EMS) were trained to perform and screen electrocardiograms (ECGs) for suspected STEMI. Suspected ECGs were transmitted to a physician's hand-held device. If the physician confirmed the diagnosis they coordinated initiation of either PHL or PPCI. In cases where physicians found the prehospital ECG negative for STEMI (PHENST), patients were transported to the closest emergency room. RESULTS: From July 21, 2008 to July 21, 2010, the Cardiac Outcomes Through Digital Evaluation (CODE) STEMI project received 380 transmitted calls. There were 226 confirmed STEMI by the on-call physician, 158 (70%) received PPCI, 48 (21%) received PHL, and 20 (9%) had angiography but no revascularization. The PPCI, median time from first medical contact to reperfusion was 76 minutes (interquartile range [IQR], 64-93). For PHL, median time from first medical contact to needle was 32 minutes (IQR, 29-39). The overall mortality rate for the STEMI patients was 8% (PHL = 4 [8.3%], PPCI = 8 [5%], medical therapy = 7 [35%]). There were 154 PHENST patients, 44% later diagnosed with acute coronary syndrome. The mortality rate for PHENST was 14%. CONCLUSIONS: Through a model of EMS prehospital ECG interpretation, digital transmission, direct communication with a physician, and rapid coordinated service, we demonstrate that benchmark reperfusion times in STEMI can be achieved.

Application of Lean principles to improve early cardiac care in the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To achieve our goal of excellent emergency cardiac care, our institution embarked on a Lean process improvement initiative. We sought to examine and quantify the outcome of this project on the care of suspected acute coronary syndrome (ACS) patients in our emergency department (ED). METHODS: Front-line ED staff participated in several rapid improvement events, using Lean principles and techniques such as waste elimination, supply chain streamlining, and standard work to increase the value of the early care provided to patients with suspected ACS. A chart review was also conducted. To evaluate our success, proportions of care milestones (first electrocardiogram [ECG], ECG interpretation, physician assessment, and acetylsalicylic acid [ASA] administration) meeting target times were chosen as outcome metrics in this before-and-after study. RESULTS: The proportion of cases with 12-lead ECGs completed within 10 minutes of patient triage increased by 37.4% (p < 0.0001). The proportion of cases with physician assessment initiated within 60 minutes increased by 12.1% (p  =  0.0251). Times to ECG, physician assessment, and ASA administration also continued to improve significantly over time (p values < 0.0001). Post-Lean, the median time from ECG performance to physician interpretation was 3 minutes. All of these improvements were achieved using existing staff and resources. CONCLUSIONS: The application of Lean principles can significantly improve attainment of early diagnostic and therapeutic milestones of emergency cardiac care in the ED.