The fungal neurotoxin penitrem A induces the production of reactive oxygen species in human neutrophils at submicromolar concentrations.

Penitrem A is a fungal neurotoxin that recurrently causes intoxication in animals, and occasionally also in humans. We have previously reported that penitrem A induced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in rat cerebellar granule cells, opening for a new mechanism of action for the neurotoxin. The aim of this study was to examine the potential of penitrem A to induce ROS production in isolated human neutrophil granulocytes, and to study possible mechanisms involved. Penitrem A significantly increased the production of ROS in human neutrophils at concentrations as low as 0.25µM (40% increase over basal levels), as measured with the DCF fluorescence assay. The EC50 determined for the production of ROS by penitrem A was 3.8µM. The maximal increase in ROS production was approximately 330% over basal levels at a concentration of 12.5µM. ROS formation was significantly inhibited by the antioxidant vitamin E (50µM), the intracellular Ca+2 chelator BAPTA-AM (5µM), the mitogen activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) 1/2 and 5 inhibitor U0126 (1 and 10µM), the p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitor SB203580 (1µM), the c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor SP600125 (10µM), and the calcineurin inhibitors FK-506 and cyclosporine A (1.5 and 0.5µM, respectively). These finding suggest that penitrem A is able to induce an increase in ROS production in neutrophils via the activation of several MAPK-signalling pathways. We suggest that this increase may partly explain the pathophysiology generated by penitrem A neuromycotoxicosis in both humans and animals.

Non-dioxin-like PCBs inhibit [(3)H]WIN-35,428 binding to the dopamine transporter: a structure-activity relationship study.

Non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs) are neurotoxic compounds with known effects at the dopaminergic system in the brain. In a previous study we demonstrated that NDL-PCBs inhibit uptake of dopamine into rat brain synaptosomes, an effect most likely mediated by inhibition of the dopamine transporter (DAT). Here, using the cocaine analogue [(3)H]WIN-35,428 binding assay and synaptosomes, we directly investigate whether NDL-PCBs act via DAT and explore the structure-activity relationship of this effect. In total, thirty PCBs were investigated, including a previously selected training set of twenty PCBs covering the structural variation within tri- to hepta-chlorinated NDL-PCBs, and an additional set of ten NDL-PCB congeners selected to validate the structure-activity pattern of neurotoxic PCBs. Since previous work has demonstrated that NDL-PCBs can also inhibit the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), we additionally examined whether some PCB congeners favour an effect on VMAT2 and others on DAT. Our results show that NDL-PCBs are potent inhibitors of [(3)H]WIN-35,428 binding to DAT. In fact, we identify a PCB congener (PCB 110) with similar potency for [(3)H]WIN-35,428 binding inhibition as cocaine. All active congeners were ortho-chlorinated PCBs, and in particular, tetra- and penta-chlorinated with 2-3 chlorine atoms in the ortho position were potent inhibitors of [(3)H]WIN-35,428 binding. Notably, the most active PCBs are highly prevalent in commercial mixtures of PCBs (Aroclor 1242, 1254 and 1260), which indicates that DAT inhibition could be one of the factors contributing to behavioural effects after Aroclor exposure. Derived data correlated well with the recently derived neurotoxic equivalency factors (NEQs), indicating the generality and applicability of the NEQ scheme in risk assessments of PCBs.

Mechanisms of penitrem-induced cerebellar granule neuron death in vitro: possible involvement of GABAA receptors and oxidative processes.

The fungal neurotoxin penitrem A has previously been found to cause neurological disorders in animals and humans after ingestion of contaminated food and/or feed. It penetrates the blood-brain-barrier and causes cerebellar pathology in rats, including mild effects on granule neurons. The aim of the current study was to investigate the potential toxicity of penitrem A in rat cerebellar granule neurons in vitro, and to examine the involvement of the GABAA, AMPA and NMDA receptors, intracellular signalling pathways as well as the role of oxidative stress in penitrem A-induced neuronal death. Cerebellar granule cells were exposed to penitrem A, alone or together with different pharmacological agents, before cell survival was assessed with the MTT assay or formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was investigated with the DCF assay. Penitrem A caused a time- and concentration-dependent reduction in cell survival, as well as a concentration-dependent increase in ROS production. Co-incubation with diazepam, GABA, BAPTA-AM, vitamin E, SP600125 and cyclosporine A significantly reduced cell death. Our results show that penitrem A is toxic to cerebellar granule neurons in vitro. Further, ROS production and the GABAA receptor are likely to be involved in the induction of neuronal death following penitrem A exposure. A disruption of calcium homeostasis and activation of the JNK pathway may also play a role in penitrem A neurotoxicity.