Pure populations of murine macrophages from cultured embryonic stem cells. Application to studies of chemotaxis and apoptotic cell clearance.

Embryonic stem cells provide a potentially convenient source of macrophages in the laboratory. Given the propensity of macrophages for plasticity in phenotype and function, standardised culture and differentiation protocols are required to ensure consistency in population output and activity in functional assays. Here we detail the development of an optimised culture protocol for the production of murine embryonic stem cell-derived macrophages (ESDM). This protocol provides improved yields of ESDM and we demonstrate that the cells are suitable for application to the study of macrophage responses to apoptotic cells. ESDM so produced were of higher purity than commonly used primary macrophage preparations and were functional in chemotaxis assays and in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Maturation of ESDM was found to be associated with reduced capacity for directed migration and increased capacity for phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells. These results show ESDM to be functionally active in sequential phases of interaction with apoptotic cells and establish these macrophage populations as useful models for further study of molecular mechanisms underlying the recognition and removal of apoptotic cells.

Leukocyte migratory responses to apoptosis: the attraction and the distraction.

An expanding body of evidence demonstrates that cells undergoing apoptosis send out a selection of molecular navigational signals including proteins, lipids and nucleotides that serve to recruit phagocytes to the dying targets which are subsequently engulfed and removed. This homeostatic process is essentially non-phlogistic, contrasting markedly with the acute inflammatory responses elicited in phagocytes by damaging or infectious agents. The "professional" scavengers of apoptotic cells are mononuclear phagocytes-the macrophages-and sites of high-rate apoptosis are clearly characterized by macrophages associated with the apoptotic cells. By contrast, members of the other class of professional phagocytes-the granulocytes-are not recruited to sites of apoptosis as a direct consequence of the cell-death program. Indeed, recent work indicates that apoptotic cells release a mixture of migratory cues to leukocytes in order to selectively attract mononuclear phagocytes but not granulocytes through functional balancing of positive and negative signals. Here we discuss these molecular mechanisms which not only serve as migratory cues but also may activate responding phagocytes to engulf apoptotic cells effectively. Finally, we speculate upon new therapeutic opportunities these mechanisms offer for a range of pathological conditions, including inflammatory disorders and cancer.