Measuring ecosystem services and ecological sensitivity for comprehensive conservation in Giant Panda National Park.

China announced the development of its first 5 national parks in 2021, the primary objective of which is to conserve the natural state and integrity of natural ecosystems. As such, ecosystem services and biodiversity levels are crucial assessment factors for the parks. For Giant Panda National Park (GPNP), we evaluated ecological sensitivity based on water and soil erosion and rocky desertification; ecosystem services based on headwater conservation, soil and water conservation, and biodiversity conservation; and presence of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and sympatric species (e.g., takin [Budorcas taxicolor], Asiatic black bear [Ursus thibetanus]) habitat suitability derived from niche modeling to identify the ecosystem status and assess ecological problems within the park. From our results, we proposed ecologically critical areas to target to meet the park's goals. The suitable habitat for pandas and sympatric species encompassed 62.98% of the park and occurred mainly in the Minshan Mountains. One quarter of the total area (25.67%) contained areas important for ecosystem services. Ecologically sensitive and extremely sensitive areas covered 88.78% of the park and were distributed mainly in Qionglaishan and Minshan Mountains. This coverage indicated that there was much habitat for pandas and sympatric species but that the ecosystems in GPNP are vulnerable. Therefore, ecologically critical areas encompassed all suitable habitats for all the species examined and areas important and extremely important to ecosystem service provision,ecologically sensitive and extremely sensitive areas, encompassed 15.17% of panda habitat, accounted for 16.37% of the GPNP area, and were distributed mainly in the Minshan Mountains. Our results indicated where conservation efforts should be focused in the park and that by identifying ecologically critical areas managers can provide targeted protection for wildlife habitat and ecosystems and effectively and efficiently protect the composite ecosystem. Additionally, our methods can be used to inform development of new national parks.

Medición de los servicios ambientales y la sensibilidad ecológica para una conservación integral en el Parque Nacional del Panda Gigante Resumen China anunció el crecimiento de sus primeros cinco parques nacionales en 2021, con el objetivo principal de conservar el estado natural y la integridad de los ecosistemas naturales. Para ello, los servicios ambientales y los niveles de biodiversidad son factores cruciales de evaluación para los parques. Para poder identificar el estado del ecosistema y evaluar los problemas ecológicos dentro del Parque Nacional del Panda Gigante (PNPG), analizamos la sensibilidad ecológica con base en la erosión del agua y del suelo y la desertificación rocosa; los servicios ambientales con base en el suministro de conservación del agua, del agua y del suelo y de la biodiversidad; y la idoneidad de hábitat del panda gigante (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) y de especies simpátricas (takín [Budorcas taxicolor], oso negro asiático [Ursus thibetanus]) derivada del modelo de nichos. A partir de nuestros resultados proponemos enfocarnos en áreas ecológicamente críticas para lograr los objetivos del parque. El hábitat idóneo para los pandas y las especies simpátricas englobó el 62.98% del parque y se ubicó principalmente en las montañas Minshan. Un cuarto del área total (25.67%) albergó áreas importantes para los servicios ambientales. Las áreas ecológicamente sensibles y extremadamente sensibles cubrieron el 88.78% del parque y se distribuyeron en las montañas Minshan y Qionglaishan. Esta cobertura indica que hay bastante hábitat para los pandas y las especies simpátricas pero que los ecosistemas en el PNPG son vulnerables. Por lo tanto, las áreas ecológicamente críticas englobaron todos los hábitats para todas las especies analizadas y todas las áreas importantes y extremadamente importantes para el suministro de servicios ambientales. Las áreas ecológicamente sensibles y extremadamente sensibles englobaron el 15.17% del hábitat del panda, representaron el 16.37% del área del PNPG y se localizaron principalmente en las montañas Minshan. Nuestros resultados indican en dónde se deben enfocar los esfuerzos de conservación dentro del parque y que, si identificamos las áreas ecológicamente críticas, los gestores pueden proporcionar una protección focalizada para el hábitat y los ecosistemas y así proteger efectiva y eficientemente el ecosistema compuesto. Además, nuestro método puede usarse para guiar el desarrollo de nuevos parques nacionales.

大熊猫国家公园能实现物种和生态完整性的多重保护 中国在2021年宣布设立首批5个国家公园, 保护自然生态系统的真实性和完整性是其优先目标, 而生态系统服务和生物多样性水平是关键的评估要素。大熊猫国家公园作为首批唯一以单一物种命名的国家公园, 通过评估其生态系统服务、生态敏感性, 同时结合大熊猫及同域分布物种(羚牛、亚洲黑熊)的栖息地适宜性, 以揭示其国家公园内生态系统的状态及其面临的问题, 明确其生态关键区以实现多重保护的目标。我们发现大熊猫国家公园包含了超过62.98%的大熊猫和同域物种的适宜栖息地, 主要分布在岷山山系;其次, 大熊猫国家公园包含了25.67%的生态系统服务重要区域和高达88.78%的生态敏感区域, 主要分布在岷山山系和邛崃山山系。这表明尽管大熊猫国家公园内包含了大熊猫及同域物种所需的大面积适宜栖息地, 但是其生态系统具有较强的脆弱性。若将同时包含大熊猫及同域物种的适宜栖息地、生态系统服务重要和极重要区、生态敏感和极敏感的区域定义为生态关键区, 其面积占比为16.37%, 覆盖了15.17%的大熊猫栖息地, 主要分布在岷山山系。因此, 基于生态关键区制定新的科学的、针对性的保护措施, 不仅可以更好的来保护野生动物栖息地和应对生态系统的威胁, 而且也有效且高效地保护多重生态系统。.

Vocal signals with different social or non-social contexts in two wild rodent species (Mus caroli and Rattus losea).

The ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) of rodents play a substantial role in the communication and interaction between individuals; exhibit a high degree of complexity; and are influenced by a multitude of developmental, environmental, and phylogenetic factors. The functions of USVs are mainly studied in laboratory mice or rats. However, the behavioral relevance of USVs in wild rodents is poorly studied. In this work, we systematically investigated the vocal repertoire of the wild mouse Mus caroli and wild rat Rattus losea in multiple social or non-social contexts, e.g., pup-isolation, juvenile-play, paired opposite-sex encounter, female-female interaction, social-exploring, or foot-shock treatment. Unlike the laboratory mice, M. caroli, whose USVs were recorded during pup-isolation and courtship behaviors, did not produce any vocal sounds during juvenile-play and female-female interactions. R. losea, similar to laboratory rats, emitted USVs in all test situations. We found higher peak frequencies of USVs in both these two wild rodent species than in laboratory animals. Moreover, the parameters and structures of USVs varied significantly across different social or non-social contexts even within each species, confirming the context-sensitivity and complexity of vocal signals in rodents. We also noted a striking difference in call types between these two species: no downward type occurred in M. caroli, but no upward type occurred in R. losea, thereby highlighting the interspecific difference of vocal signals among rodents. Thus, the present study presents behavioral foundations of the vocalization context in wild mice and wild rats, and contributes to revealing the behavioral significance of widely used USVs in rodents.

Investment in science can mitigate the negative impacts of land use on declining primate populations.

Changes in land use and the conversion of natural forests to agricultural fields and cattle pastures are threatening the survival of many species of wild animals, including nonhuman primates. Given its almost 1.4 billion people, China faces a difficult challenge in balancing economic development, human well-being, environmental protection, and animal conservation. We examined the effects of poverty, anthropogenic land use (cropland and pasture/grazing), human population growth, government investment in science and public attention to primates during the period from the 1980s to 2015 on primate population persistence in China. We analyzed these data using generalized mixed-effects models, structural equation models (SEM) and random forests (a machine learning technique). We found that 16 of 21 (76%) primate species in China, for which data are available, have experienced a population decline over the past 35 years. Factors contributing most to primate population decline included human poverty and the conversion of natural habitat to cropland. In contrast, the five species of primates that were characterized by recent population increases were the subjects of substantial government research funding and their remaining distribution occurs principally in protected areas (PAs). We argue that increased funding for research, the establishment and expansion of PAs, a national policy focused on reducing poverty, and educational programs designed to inform and encourage local people to participate in scientific investigation and wildlife protection, can mitigate the negative impacts of historical patterns of land conversion on primate population survival in China.

Burrowing and Anti-Predator Requirements Determine the Microhabitat Selection of Himalayan Marmot in Zoige Wetland.

To satisfy their requirements for food and safety, animals need certain habitats to live. Marmots generally select habitats with certain elevation, land surface temperature, soil and vegetation type, and certain mountain slope and aspect; however, what habitats are needed at relatively smaller scales are poorly known. The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) is distributed mainly on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, a region exhibiting diversified topographic features, and the Zoige wetland in the northeast part of the plateau is also the home of the Himalayan marmot. The region is famous for its plateau peat bog, and the suitable habitats for Himalayan marmots are patchily distributed in the wetland. To investigate what kinds of patches are preferred by the marmot in this wetland ecosystem, we measured and compared the soil and vegetation characteristics of used and unused patches. We found that unlike factors governing the habitat selection at macroscales, patches characterized by flat ground and low soil moisture content, with medium vegetation standing height and low vegetation density, are selected in the Zoige wetland. Patches of this kind are selected to meet the marmots' requirements for burrow construction and predator avoidance in such a wetland ecosystem. Together with previous studies on habitat selection of the marmot species at macroscales, we showed that to explore how the animals survive in an environment, it is important to conduct the analysis at multiple scales.

Cafeteria-style feeding trials provide new insights into the diet and nutritional strategies of the black snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri): Implications for conservation.

Anthropogenic changes and fragmentation of natural habitats often exert a negative effect on resource availability and distribution, and the nutritional ecology and feeding behavior of nonhuman primates. The goals of this study are to examine food choice and to identify the nutritional profile of foods consumed by the Critically Endangered black snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri). To accomplish our study goals, we presented cafeteria-style feeding trials of fresh food items collected in the home range of wild black snub-nosed monkeys to the only two captive R. strykeri, and compared the nutritional profiles of the leafy foods (buds, young, and mature leaves, 100 i23tems from 70 plant species) selected with those avoided (54 items from 48 plant species). Overall, the results indicate that captive R. strykeri selected foods that were higher in moisture (Mo; 77.7%), crude protein (CP; 21.2%), total nonstructural carbohydrates (TNC; 34.9%), and phosphorus (P; 0.37%) while tending to avoid foods with a neutral detergent fiber (NDF) content of greater than 46.8%. Leaves collected in autumn and selected by the monkeys were characterized by a slightly higher amount of metabolizable energy (ME) than those rejected (1,350 kJ/100 g vs. 1,268 kJ/100 g). In contrast, the protein content of foods collected and consumed during the spring was greater (22.9%) than in autumn (16.4%). Random Forests modeling, an ensemble learning method, indicated that the proportion of Mo, NDF, ME, CP, P, and TNC were among the most important factors in predicting which items were consumed by the captive R. strykeri during spring and autumn. On the basis of the nutritional profile of foods consumed across the two seasons, we identified 18 nutrient-rich native plant species that we recommend for use in ex- and in-situ conservation management and reforestation programs to provide long-term access to a nutritionally adequate diet.

Seasonal changes in social cohesion among males in a same-sex primate group.

Male-male interactions in mixed-sex groups of social mammals are typically characterized by a mix of hostility and affiliation, as a result of inherent conflicts over mating opportunities, and the costs and benefits of social alliances, co-operative behaviors, and coalitionary defense. In species of nonhuman primates that form all-male groups, it is still unclear how the tradeoffs between the benefits of forming an all-male group and the cost of male-male competition in seeking mating opportunities with females in bisexual groups influence social cohesion in different seasons. Here, we used social network analysis to quantify the impact of reproductive seasonality on social cohesion and clique size of bachelor males residing in an all-male unit (AMU) in wild black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti). These primates are strict seasonal breeders and live in a modular social system composed of a number of one-male units (OMUs) and an associated peripheral AMU. We found that the AMU social network had a significantly lower density, centralization, clustering coefficient, and smaller clique size during the mating season compared to the non-mating period. However, aggression among AMU males during both mating and non-mating periods was low. Our results suggest that network structure topology in male same-sex social units is modulated by seasonal changes. Bachelor males engage in two types of competition to gain reproductive success: first, which is analogous to contest competition, in which bachelor males act aggressively and challenge OMU leader males in an attempt to take over an OMU; and second, which is more analogous to scramble competition, in which bachelor males avoid aggressive interactions and instead engage in sneaky copulations with fertile females. Our work adds to an understanding of the maintenance of all-male groups in species that form a multilevel society.

Population Genomics Reveals Low Genetic Diversity and Adaptation to Hypoxia in Snub-Nosed Monkeys.

Snub-nosed monkeys (genus Rhinopithecus) are a group of endangered colobines endemic to South Asia. Here, we re-sequenced the whole genomes of 38 snub-nosed monkeys representing four species within this genus. By conducting population genomic analyses, we observed a similar load of deleterious variation in snub-nosed monkeys living in both smaller and larger populations and found that genomic diversity was lower than that reported in other primates. Reconstruction of Rhinopithecus evolutionary history suggested that episodes of climatic variation over the past 2 million years, associated with glacial advances and retreats and population isolation, have shaped snub-nosed monkey demography and evolution. We further identified several hypoxia-related genes under selection in R. bieti (black snub-nosed monkey), a species that exploits habitats higher than any other nonhuman primate. These results provide the first detailed and comprehensive genomic insights into genetic diversity, demography, genetic burden, and adaptation in this radiation of endangered primates.

Implications of genetics and current protected areas for conservation of 5 endangered primates in China.

Most of China's 24-28 primate species are threatened with extinction. Habitat reduction and fragmentation are perhaps the greatest threats. We used published data from a conservation genetics study of 5 endangered primates in China (Rhinopithecus roxellana, R. bieti, R. brelichi, Trachypithecus francoisi, and T. leucocephalus); distribution data on these species; and the distribution, area, and location of protected areas to inform conservation strategies for these primates. All 5 species were separated into subpopulations with unique genetic components. Gene flow appeared to be strongly impeded by agricultural land, meadows used for grazing, highways, and humans dwellings. Most species declined severely or diverged concurrently as human population and crop land cover increased. Nature reserves were not evenly distributed across subpopulations with unique genetic backgrounds. Certain small subpopulations were severely fragmented and had higher extinction risk than others. Primate mobility is limited and their genetic structure is strong and susceptible to substantial loss of diversity due to local extinction. Thus, to maximize preservation of genetic diversity in all these primate species, our results suggest protection is required for all sub-populations. Key priorities for their conservation include maintaining R. roxellana in Shennongjia national reserve, subpopulations S4 and S5 of R. bieti and of R. brelichi in Fanjingshan national reserve, subpopulation CGX of T. francoisi in central Guangxi Province, and all 3 T. leucocephalus sub-populations in central Guangxi Province.

Males collectively defend their one-male units against bachelor males in a multi-level primate society.

Group-level male-male co-operation, which has been documented in several primate and non-primate societies, may be mutualistically advantageous to the participants when confronted with threats such as takeovers and cuckoldry by external males. Co-operation among members of distinct social units-while universal among humans-is extremely rare in non-human primates. We present the first observations of collective action or co-operation among males of different one-male units (OMU) in a multi-level society of Rhinopithecus roxellana. A total of 59 instances of male co-operation were recorded. Male co-operation included coordinated chasing, joint vigilance, and patrolling behavior directed at lone adult males trying to enter an OMU. Male co-operation was significantly more frequent during the mating season when the risk of incursions and extra-group paternity was higher. Paternity of infants born in the subsequent birth season and kin relationships among resident males were identified using microsatellite genotype. All infants were sired by OMU males, which we interpret as possible evidence for their success at thwarting mating attempts by satellite males. OMU males were principally unrelated suggesting that male co-operation is best understood in terms of the mutual direct benefits individuals obtain through collective action. Our findings lend support to the bachelor threat hypothesis in which the cooperative behavior of several individuals is more effective than the lone action of a single individual in providing mate defense. Our research has implications for understanding male bonding, higher-level collective action, and the evolution of social co-operation in human societies.

Evidence of male-biased dispersal in the endangered Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithexus roxellana).

Although sex-biased dispersal has profound effects on the viability of small and isolated populations resulting from habitat change and anthropogenic disturbance, the direction and strength of sex-biased dispersal in the endangered Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithexus roxellana) remains poorly understood. Here, we investigated dispersal patterns of R. roxellana using 15 polymorphic microsatellite loci. Using noninvasive methods we obtained 337 fecal samples from individuals residing in four multilevel troops that inhabit the Shennongjia Nature Reserve (SNR). Our study site contains an isolated population of approximately 1,000 Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys located in the easternmost distribution of the species' range. Our results indicated that the mean coefficient of relatedness among troop members was low (mean relatedness ± SE = 0.038 ± 0.025). However, the mean relatedness of monkeys residing in the same troop was significantly higher than the mean relatedness of monkeys belonging to different troops, suggesting that some members of the same troop were closely relatived. Sex-biased dispersal tests revealed that dispersal in R. roxellana was male-biased. Moreover, analysis of isolation-by-distance indicated that the correlation between pairwise genetic distance and geographical distance was positive for females, while it was negative for males. These data suggest that males tended to disperse further than females, although these values were not statistically significant. Considering previous field data collected on Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys from other sites, we suggest that mating competition among males and female mate choice represent the major causes of male-biased dispersal in R. roxellana.

Sperm collection and characteristics analysis of the critically endangered Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla).

The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a critically endangered species. However, there is a paucity of research on the male reproductive gamete biology of this species. The present study was the first to systematically analyse the sperm characterization of the Chinese pangolin, including semen collection, sperm morphometry and ultrastructure. The semen of five male Chinese pangolins was successfully collected using the electroejaculation method. CASA (computer-assisted sperm analysis) was used to assess semen quality and take images for sperm morphometric analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used for sperm ultrastructure observation. The results showed that the semen of the Chinese pangolin was yellow to pale yellow in colour, viscous, with a fishy odour, and a slightly alkaline pH of between 7.7 and 7.9. The head defects were the main sperm defects; there were 13 kinds of head defects counted in this study. The total sperm length, head length, head width and tail length were 67.62 ± 0.21 µm, 10.47 ± 0.06 µm, 1.33 ± 0.006 µm and 57.16 ± 0.20 µm, respectively. SEM observed that the spermatozoa had a rod-shaped head with a distinct apical ridge, which was different from most mammals and similar to that in avians and reptiles. Interestingly, TEM found that the acrosome membrane of the Chinese pangolin had a double membrane structure rather than a multiple bi-lamellar membrane structure as reported by the previous study. Collectively, this study contributes to the development of artificial breeding efforts and assisted reproductive techniques for the Chinese pangolin, as well as providing technical support for research on germplasm conservation of this species.

The mating system of Himalayan marmots as inferred by microsatellite markers.

The Himalayan marmot Marmota himalayana is widely distributed across the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and lives in social groups, yet the mating system of this highly social marmot species is unknown. In this study, the genetic mating system of Himalayan marmots was investigated using microsatellite markers to determine which mating strategies individuals employ. Results revealed that both monogamous and polygamous mating relationships occur in our study population, indicating that the genetic mating system of this marmot species is promiscuity. This study presents the first genetic evidence on the mating system for Himalayan marmots, yet indicates that further studies employing both a genetic and behavioral framework are needed to better understand the social structure and reproductive biology of this marmot species.

A Fine-Grained Image Classification Approach for Dog Feces Using MC-SCMNet under Complex Backgrounds.

In a natural environment, factors such as weathering and sun exposure will degrade the characteristics of dog feces; disturbances such as decaying wood and dirt are likely to make false detections; the recognition distinctions between different kinds of feces are slight. To address these issues, this paper proposes a fine-grained image classification approach for dog feces using MC-SCMNet under complex backgrounds. First, a multi-scale attention down-sampling module (MADM) is proposed. It carefully retrieves tiny feces feature information. Second, a coordinate location attention mechanism (CLAM) is proposed. It inhibits the entry of disturbance information into the network's feature layer. Then, an SCM-Block containing MADM and CLAM is proposed. We utilized the block to construct a new backbone network to increase the efficiency of fecal feature fusion in dogs. Throughout the network, we decrease the number of parameters using depthwise separable convolution (DSC). In conclusion, MC-SCMNet outperforms all other models in terms of accuracy. On our self-built DFML dataset, it achieves an average identification accuracy of 88.27% and an F1 value of 88.91%. The results of the experiments demonstrate that it is more appropriate for dog fecal identification and maintains stable results even in complex backgrounds, which may be applied to dog gastrointestinal health checks.

Fatty acid metabolization and insulin regulation prevent liver injury from lipid accumulation in Himalayan marmots.

Fat storage and weight gain are dominant traits for hibernating mammals. However, excessive fat accumulation may cause liver damage. Here, we explore the lipid accumulation and metabolic processes of the Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana), a hibernating rodent species. We find that the unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) content in food was consistent with a large increase in the body mass of Himalayan marmots. Metagenomic analysis shows that Firmicutes Bacterium CAG:110 plays a synergistic role by synthesizing UFAs, which is demonstrated by fecal transplantation experiments, indicating that the gut microbiome promotes fat storage in Himalayan marmots for hibernation. Microscopic examination results indicate that the risk of fatty liver appears at maximum weight; however, liver function is not affected. Upregulations of UFA catabolism and insulin-like growth factor binding protein genes provide an entry point for avoiding liver injury.

Diet and feeding behavior of Rhinopithecus brelichi at Yangaoping, Guizhou.

Expectations of increases in human population growth and accelerated habitat loss, along with the realization that efforts to provide protection for ecosystems that sustain primates have met with limited success, make it critical that conservation plans are grounded firmly in scientific observation. Studies of the diet breadth and feeding behavior of endangered species, therefore, are critical for understanding ecological adaptations and developing a conservation strategy. The diet and feeding ecology of gray snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus brelichi) were studied in the Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve, Guizhou, China. The monkeys were found to consume 107 different species of trees, shrubs, and ground plants from 58 genera and 28 families. Food items included young leaves, mature leaves, flowers, fruits/seeds, buds, and insects. Among these food items, there were at least 13 evergreen species of tree and liana, 3 species of grasses, and at least 2 kinds of invertebrates collected from decayed wood. Diet varied markedly throughout different seasons. Overall, diet composition (based on feeding records) was 15.3% buds, 25.5% young leaves, 21.8% mature leaves, 9.4% flowers, 21.6% fruits/seeds, and 6.3% other items. The monkeys feed mainly on young leaves and flowers in spring, unripe fruits/seeds and young leaves in summer, ripe fruits/seeds in autumn, and mature leaves and buds in winter. We propose that when inhabiting forests of lower elevation and greater vegetation complexity, R. brelichi is characterized by expanded diet breadth and includes a greater diversity of food types and plant species in its diet. One food type that appears critical to the diet of this species, especially during the winter, are the buds of Magnolia sprengeri. To protect this resource we advocate working with local communities to limit the collection of M. sprengeri, which is used in traditional Chinese medicine and has high economic value for people in the reserve.

Sleeping tree selection of Cao Vit gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) living in degraded karst forest in Bangliang, Jingxi, China.

We studied the sleep-related behavior of two Cao Vit gibbon (Nomascus nasutus) groups in Bangliang Nature Reserve in Jingxi County, China between January 2008 and December 2009 to test four hypotheses related to sleeping tree selection (predation avoidance, thermoregulation, food access, and range defense). Gibbons entered sleeping trees 88 ± SD 37 min before sunset before their main potential nocturnal predator become active. They usually moved rapidly and straight to sleeping trees and kept silent once settled. Over the course of the study, gibbon groups used many (87 and 57 per group) sleeping trees and reused them irregularly. They also tended to sleep in relatively tall trees without lianas, choosing small branches close to the treetop. These behaviors would make it difficult for potential terrestrial predators to detect and approach the gibbons. Therefore, these results strongly support the predation avoidance hypothesis. Gibbons tended to sleep closer to ridges than to valley bottoms and they did not sleep at lower elevations in colder months. They thus appeared not to select sleeping trees to minimize thermoregulatory stress. Gibbons very rarely slept in feeding trees, instead generally sleeping more than 100 m away from the last feeding trees of the day or the first feeding tree of the next morning. These patterns led us to reject the food access hypothesis. Lastly, we did not find evidence to support the range defense hypothesis because gibbons did not sleep in overlap areas with neighbors more often than expected based on the proportion of overlap and exclusively used areas.

The Relationship Between Gut Microbiome and Bile Acids in Primates With Diverse Diets.

Primates have evolved a variety of feeding habits and intestinal physiological structure. Gut microbiome act as metabolic organs in many biological processes and play a vital role in adaptation to dietary niches. Gut microbiome also convert primary bile acids (BAs) to secondary. BAs profile and gut microbiome are together influenced by diets and play a significant role in nutrient absorption. The regulation between gut microbiome and BAs metabolism is bidirectional although the relationship in primates consuming diverse diets is still unclear. Here, we investigated gut microbiome structures, fecal BAs profile, and their relationship in primates preferring three distinct diets. We found that gut microbiome communities are well differentiated among dietary groups. Folivorous primates had higher Firmicutes abundance and lower Prevotella to Bacaeroides ratios, possibly related to fiber consumption. Frugivorous primates are colonized predominantly by Prevotella and Bacteroides, pointing to an increased adaptation to high-sugar and simple carbohydrate diets. Likewise, BA profiles differ according to diet in a manner predictable from the known effects of BAs on metabolism. Folivorous primates have high conjugated bile acid levels and low unconjugated to conjugated BA ratios, consistent with their fiber-rich leaf-eating diet. Much of the differentiation in secondary and unconjugated BAs is associated with microbiome composition shifts and individual bile acid concentrations are correlated with the abundance of distinct bacterial taxonomic groups. Omnivores have higher concentrations of secondary BAs, mainly lithocholic acid (LCA). These levels are significantly positively correlated with the presence of Clostrida species, showing that the digestion requirements of omnivores are different from plant-eating primates. In conclusion, gut microbiome and BAs can respond to changes in diet and are associated with nutrient component consumption in each diet primate group. Our study is the first to demonstrate BA profile differentiation among primates preferring diverse diets. BAs thus appear to work with gut microbiome to help primates adapt to their diet.

Epidemiology and Genomic Characterization of Two Novel SARS-Related Coronaviruses in Horseshoe Bats from Guangdong, China.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2, the causative agents of SARS, which broke out in 2003, and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-2019), which broke out in 2019, probably originated in Rhinolophus sinicus and R. affinis, respectively. Rhinolophus bats are important hosts for coronaviruses. Many SARS-related coronaviruses (SARSr-CoVs) have been detected in bats from different areas of China; however, the diversity of bat SARSr-CoVs is increasing, and their transmission mechanisms have attracted much attention. Here, we report the findings of SARSr-CoVs in R. sinicus and R. affinis from South China from 2008 to 2021. The full-length genome sequences of the two novel SARSr-CoVs obtained from Guangdong shared 83 to 88% and 71 to 72% nucleotide identities with human SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, respectively, while sharing high similarity with human SARS-CoV in hypervariable open reading frame 8 (ORF8). Significant recombination occurred between the two novel SARSr-CoVs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the two novel bat SARSr-CoVs from Guangdong were more distant than the bat SARSr-CoVs from Yunnan to human SARS-CoV. We found that transmission in bats contributes more to virus diversity than time. Although our results of the sequence analysis of the receptor-binding motif (RBM) and the expression pattern of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) inferred that these viruses could not directly infect humans, risks still exist after some unpredictable mutations. Thus, this study increased our understanding of the genetic diversity and transmission of SARSr-CoVs carried by bats in the field. IMPORTANCE Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and SARS-CoV-2 probably originated from the SARS-related coronaviruses (SARSr-CoVs) carried by Rhinolophus bats from Yunnan, China. Systematic investigations of the reservoir hosts carrying SARSr-CoVs in Guangdong and the reservoir distribution and transmission are urgently needed to prevent future outbreaks. Here, we detected SARSr-CoV in Rhinolophus bat samples from Guangdong in 2009 and 2021 and found that the transmission of SARSr-CoV from different host populations contributes more to increased virus diversity than time. Bat SARSr-CoVs in Guangdong had genetic diversity, and Guangdong was also the hot spot for SARSr-CoVs. We once again prove that R. sinicus plays an important role in the maintenance of the SARS-CoVs. Besides, the SARSr-CoVs are mainly transmitted through the intestines in bats, and these SARSr-CoVs found in Guangdong could not use human ACE2 (hACE2), but whether they can pass through intermediate hosts or directly infect humans requires further research. Our findings demonstrate the ability of SARSr-CoVs to spread across species.

Habitat selection of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Tibet: implications for species conservation.

As anthropogenic habitat changes are often considered a threat to natural ecosystems and wildlife, a sound understanding of the effects of habitat alteration on endangered species is crucial when designing management strategies or performing conservation activities. Black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) are categorized as endangered on the IUCN Red List and are endemic to the trans-Himalayas in China. At present, there are only 15 groups and 2,500 individuals remaining in the wild, and they are facing intense habitat degradation with selective logging for house building and firewood. Habitat deterioration through wood extraction is occurring at Xiaochangdu, Tibet, where one stable group of R. bieti lives in a marginal habitat in the northernmost part of the species' distribution. To understand the species' response to selective logging in an extremely marginal habitat, data on habitat preference and diet composition of a group of R. bieti were collected at Xiaochangdu from 2003 to 2005. The monkeys used different habitats nonrandomly during the year. The selection index for secondary conifer forest (SC), where selective logging has occurred, was the highest of all habitat types (>1), suggesting that the groups strongly preferred SC. The monkeys fed more on buds/leaves, more on flowers/fruit/seeds, and less on lichen in SC than in primary conifer forest (PC). Dietary diversity was significantly higher in SC than in PC. These results indicate that over the short term, low-intensity disturbances may result in increased foliage diversity that enable groups of R. bieti to survive in this marginal habitat.

Convergent Evolution of Himalayan Marmot with Some High-Altitude Animals through ND3 Protein.

The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) mainly lives on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and it adopts multiple strategies to adapt to high-altitude environments. According to the principle of convergent evolution as expressed in genes and traits, the Himalayan marmot might display similar changes to other local species at the molecular level. In this study, we obtained high-quality sequences of the CYTB gene, CYTB protein, ND3 gene, and ND3 protein of representative species (n = 20) from NCBI, and divided them into the marmot group (n = 11), the plateau group (n = 8), and the Himalayan marmot (n = 1). To explore whether plateau species have convergent evolution on the microscale level, we built a phylogenetic tree, calculated genetic distance, and analyzed the conservation and space structure of Himalayan marmot ND3 protein. The marmot group and Himalayan marmots were in the same branch of the phylogenetic tree for the CYTB gene and CYTB protein, and mean genetic distance was 0.106 and 0.055, respectively, which was significantly lower than the plateau group. However, the plateau group and the Himalayan marmot were in the same branch of the phylogenetic tree, and the genetic distance was only 10% of the marmot group for the ND3 protein, except Marmota flaviventris. In addition, some sites of the ND3 amino acid sequence of Himalayan marmots were conserved from the plateau group, but not the marmot group. This could lead to different structures and functional diversifications. These findings indicate that Himalayan marmots have adapted to the plateau environment partly through convergent evolution of the ND3 protein with other plateau animals, however, this protein is not the only strategy to adapt to high altitudes, as there may have other methods to adapt to this environment.