Establishment and characterization of a novel highly aggressive gallbladder cancer cell line, TJ-GBC2.

BACKGROUND: Human gallbladder cancer (GBC) is an aggressive malignant neoplasm with a poor prognosis. The development of ideal tools for example tumor cell lines for investigating biological behavior, metastatic mechanism and potential treatment in GBCs is essential. In present study, we established and characterized a GBC cell line derived from primary tumor. METHODS: Primary culture method was used to establish this cell line from a primary GBC. Light and electron microscopes, flow cytometry, chromosome analysis, heterotransplantation and immunohistochemistry were used to characterize the epidemic tumor characteristics and phenotypes of this cell line. RESULTS: A novel GBC cell line, named TJ-GBC2, was successfully established from primary GBC. This cell line had characteristic epithelial tumor morphology and phenotypes in consistent with primary GBC, such as polygon and irregular cell shape, increased CA19-9 and AFP levels, and positive expression of CK7, CK8, CK19 and E-cadherin with negative vimentin. Moreover, about 25% of the cells were in the S-G2/M phase; abnormity in structure and number of chromosome with a peak number of 90-105 and 80% hypertetraploid were observed. Furthermore, this cell line had higher invasion and highest migration abilities compared to other GBC cell lines; and metastatic-related marker MMP9 and nm23 were positively expressed. CONCLUSIONS: A novel highly aggressive GBC cell line TJ-GBC2 was successfully established from primary GBC. TJ-GBC2 cell line may be efficient tool for further investigating the biological behaviors, metastatic mechanism and potential targeted therapy of human GBC.

Improvement in the Anticancer Activity of 6-Mercaptopurine via Combination with Bismuth(III).

6-Mercaptopurine (6-MP) is a clinically important antitumor drug and its commercially available form is provided as monohydrate, belonging to biopharmaceuticals classification system (BCS) class II category. The combination of bismuth(III) (Bi(III)) with 6-MP was proved to significantly improve the anticancer activity of 6-MP, leading to the discovery of a new amorphous complex ([Bi(MP)3(NO3)2]NO3). The prepared [Bi(MP)3(NO3)2]NO3 was characterized by the matrix assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF)-MS, etc. Noticeably, according to the in vitro evaluations of cytotoxicity, cellular apoptotic, colony formation as well as cell migration, the anticancer activity of amorphous [Bi(MP)3(NO3)2]NO3 was found to be of high therapeutic effect over 6-MP.

Potent anticancer activity of a new bismuth (III) complex against human lung cancer cells.

The aim of this work is experimental study of an interesting bismuth(III) complex derived from pentadentate 2,6-pyridinedicarboxaldehyde bis(4N-methylthiosemicarbazone), [BiL(NO3)2]NO3 {L=2,6-pyridinedicarboxaldehyde bis(4N-methylthiosemicarbazone)}. A series of in vitro biological studies indicate that the newly prepared [BiL(NO3)2]NO3 greatly suppressed colony formation, migration and significantly induced apoptosis of human lung cancer cells A549 and H460, but did not obviously decrease the cell viability of non-cancerous human lung fibroblast (HLF) cell line, showing much higher anticancer activities than its parent ligands, especially with half maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) <3.5µM. Moreover, in vivo study provides enough evidence that the treatment with [BiL(NO3)2]NO3 effectively inhibited A549 xenograft tumor growth on tumor-bearing mice (10mgkg-1, tumor volume reduced by 97.92% and tumor weight lightened by 94.44% compared to control) and did not indicate harmful effect on mouse weight and liver. These results suggest that the coordination of free ligand with Bi(III) might be an interesting and potent strategy in the discovery of new anticancer drug candidates.

Expression of MMP-2,TIMP-2 protein and the ratio of MMP-2/TIMP-2 in gallbladder carcinoma and their significance.

AIM: To study the correlation between expression of MMP-2, TIMP-2 protein and the ratio of MMP-2/TIMP-2 and clinical-pathological parameters of patients with gallbladder carcinoma. METHODS: Carcinomas (n=45) and polypoid lesions (n=15) of the gallbladder were studied for the expression of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 protein by immunohistochemical avidin-biotin-complex method and image analysis. Clinical-pathological data of patients with gallbladder carcinoma such as histological type, grade of differentiation, level of infiltration, liver invasion and lymph node involvement, etc, were recorded. RESULTS: There was significant difference between the average level (1.123+/-0.108 vs 1.030+/-0.054, P=0.002) of MMP-2, the ratio (1.050+/-0.013 vs 0.937+/-0.078, P=0.003) of MMP-2/TIMP-2 in gallbladder carcinomas and in polypoid lesions of the gallbladder. Significant difference was found between the expression of MMP-2 in early stage and advanced tumors, but there was no correlation between MMP-2 protein expression and histological type, differentiation degree, infiltration level, lymph node involvement or liver invasion. Although no difference was observed between TIMP-2 expression and histological type or differentiation degree, significant difference was found between TIMP-2 expression and different Nevin stage, infiltration level, local lymph node involvement or liver invasion (1.168+/-0.067 vs 1.048+/-0.075, 1.170+/-0.062 vs 1.039+/-0.069, 1.039+/-0.076 vs 1.147+/-0.083, 1.048+/-0.074 vs 1.103+/-0.095, P<0.05). MMP-2/TIMP-2 ratio did not correlate with histological type, grade of differentiation and liver invasion, but significant differences were found between MMP-2/TIMP-2 ratio and different Nevin stage, infiltration level and lymph node involvement in patients with carcinoma of gallbladder. CONCLUSION: TIMP-2 and MMP-2/TIMP-2 ratio could reflect more accurately biological characteristic of gallbladder carcinoma and MMP-2/TIMP-2 ratio might be a new significant marker in early diagnosis, in the judgment of invasion or metastasis and the estimate of prognosis in patients with gallbladder carcinomas.

Combination therapy of VEGF-trap and gemcitabine results in improved anti-tumor efficacy in a mouse lung cancer model.

BACKGROUND: Angiogenesis is essential for the growth and metastasis of cancer. Although anti-angiogenic agents, particularly vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors, have exhibited single-agent activity, there is considerable interest in combining these novel drugs with conventional chemotherapy reagents to achieve an optimal clinical efficacy. The objective of this study was to evaluate the benefits of the combination therapy of vascular endothelial growth factor trap (VEGF-Trap) with gemcitabine in a lung tumor model. METHODS: A luciferase-expressing Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) model was established in C57BL/6J mice and tumor-bearing mice were randomized into control, VEGF-Trap, gemcitabine and VEGF-Trap/gemcitabine combination groups. Tumor growth and animal survival were monitored. Tumor microvessel density and cell proliferation were evaluated by CD31 and Ki-67 immunohistochemical analysis. TUNEL assay was performed to detect apoptotic cells. The protein levels of Cyclin D1, Pro-Caspase-3, Bcl-2, MMP2 and MMP9 in tumor extracts were examined by western blot. RESULTS: VEGF-Trap in combination with gemcitabine showed significantly enhanced inhibition of tumor growth and prolonged mouse survival compared to the VEGF-Trap or gemcitabine monotherapy. The VEGF-Trap/gemcitabine combination therapy not only potently inhibited tumor angiogenesis and cell proliferation, but also increased cellular apoptosis within tumor tissues. In addition, the combination treatment markedly down-regulated the expression of proliferation, anti-apoptosis and invasion related proteins. CONCLUSION: Combination therapy using VEGF-Trap and gemcitabine resulted in improved anti-tumor efficacy in a lung cancer model and VEGF-Trap/gemcitabine combination might represent a promising strategy in the treatment of human lung cancer.

Resveratrol inhibits TGF-ß1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and suppresses lung cancer invasion and metastasis.

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular process during which epithelial polarized cells become motile mesenchymal-appearing cells, which in turn promotes carcinoma invasion and metastasis. Resveratrol (trans-3,4',5-trihydroxystilbene) is a natural polyphenolic compound found in grapes, red wine and several other plants. Numerous reports in the literature indicate that resveratrol can suppress cancer invasion and metastasis. However, the underlying mechanisms of inhibiting metastasis by resveratrol are complex, not fully elucidated and the subject of intense scientific debate. Despite evidence indicating that EMT can be a target for resveratrol, little is known about the effect of resveratrol on lung cancer cells. Our previous studies demonstrated that TGF-ß1 induces EMT to promote lung adenocarcinoma invasion and metastasis. To understand the repressive role of resveratrol in lung cancer invasion and metastasis, we sought to investigate the potential use of resveratrol as an inhibitor of TGF-ß1-induced EMT development in A549 lung cancer cells in vitro. Here we show that when A549 cells are treated with TGF-ß1 and resveratrol, the latter inhibits the initiation of TGF-ß1-induced EMT. Our results show that 20 µM resveratrol increases expression of the epithelial phenotype marker E-cadherin and represses the expression of the mesenchymal phenotype markers, Fibronectin and Vimentin during the initiation of TGF-ß1-induced EMT. Resveratrol also inhibits expression of EMT-inducing transcription factors Snail1 and Slug, although the expression of the Twist1 transcription factor remained unchanged. Resveratrol inhibits the TGF-ß1-induced increase in cell adhesion, migration and invasion of A549 lung cancer cells. Taken together, our findings provide new evidence that resveratrol suppresses lung cancer invasion and metastasis in vitro through inhibiting TGF-ß1-induced EMT.

miRNA-29c suppresses lung cancer cell adhesion to extracellular matrix and metastasis by targeting integrin ß1 and matrix metalloproteinase2 (MMP2).

Our pilot study using miRNA arrays found that miRNA-29c (miR-29c) is differentially expressed in the paired low-metastatic lung cancer cell line 95C compared to the high-metastatic lung cancer cell line 95D. Bioinformatics analysis shows that integrin ß1 and matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) could be important target genes of miR-29c. Therefore, we hypothesized that miR-29c suppresses lung cancer cell adhesion to extracellular matrix (ECM) and metastasis by targeting integrin ß1 and MMP2. The gain-of-function studies that raised miR-29c expression in 95D cells by using its mimics showed reductions in cell proliferation, adhesion to ECM, invasion and migration. In contrasts, loss-of-function studies that reduced miR-29c by using its inhibitor in 95C cells promoted proliferation, adhesion to ECM, invasion and migration. Furthermore, the dual-luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that miR-29c inhibited the expression of the luciferase gene containing the 3'-UTRs of integrin ß1 and MMP2 mRNA. Western blotting indicated that miR-29c downregulated the expression of integrin ß1 and MMP2 at the protein level. Gelatin zymography analysis further confirmed that miR-29c decreased MMP2 enzyme activity. Nude mice with xenograft models of lung cancer cells confirmed that miR-29c inhibited lung cancer metastasis in vivo, including bone and liver metastasis. Taken together, our results demonstrate that miR-29c serves as a tumor metastasis suppressor, which suppresses lung cancer cell adhesion to ECM and metastasis by directly inhibiting integrin ß1 and MMP2 expression and by further reducing MMP2 enzyme activity. The results show that miR-29c may be a novel therapeutic candidate target to slow lung cancer metastasis.

Depletion of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells promotes CCL21-mediated antitumor immunity.

CCL21 is known to attract dendritic cells (DCs) and T cells that may reverse tumor-mediated immune suppression. The massive infiltration of tumors by regulatory T cells (Tregs) prevents the development of a successful helper immune response. In this study, we investigated whether elimination of CD4(+) CD25(+) Tregs in the tumor microenvironment using anti-CD25 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was capable of enhancing CCL21-mediated antitumor immunity in a mouse hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) model. We found that CCL21 in combination with anti-CD25 mAbs (PC61) resulted in improved antitumor efficacy and prolonged survival, not only inhibited tumor angiogenesis and cell proliferation, but also led to significant increases in the frequency of CD4(+), CD8(+) T cells and CD11c(+) DCs within the tumor, coincident with marked induction of tumor-specific CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) at the local tumor site. The intratumoral immune responses were accompanied by the enhanced elaboration of IL-12 and IFN-γ, but reduced release of the immunosuppressive mediators IL-10 and TGF-ß1. The results indicated that depletion of Tregs in the tumor microenvironment could enhance CCL21-mediated antitumor immunity, and CCL21 combined with anti-CD25 mAbs may be a more effective immunotherapy to promote tumor rejection.

CCR7 expression and intratumoral FOXP3+ regulatory T cells are correlated with overall survival and lymph node metastasis in gastric cancer.

The aim of this study was to investigate the prognostic value of chemokine receptor CCR7 expression and intratumoral FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in gastric cancer. CCR7(+) tumor cells and FOXP3(+) Tregs were assessed by immunohistochemistry in tissue microarrays containing gastric cancer from 133 patients. Prognostic effects of low or high CCR7 and FOXP3 expression were evaluated by Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier analysis, as well as the correlation between CCR7 positive score and intratumoral FOXP3(+) cell number in a longitudinal assessment. The analysis showed that the high expression levels of CCR7 and FOXP3 were detected in 69.9% and 65.4% of cases, respectively. High CCR7 expression in gastric cancer cells was significantly associated with poor overall survival (OS) (P = 0.010) and lymph node metastasis (P = 0.009), and was an independent factor for worse OS (P = 0.023) by multivariate analysis. High numbers of intratumoral FOXP3(+) Tregs significantly correlated with shorter OS (P = 0.021) and lymph node metastasis (P = 0.024), and was also an independent factor for adverse OS (P = 0.035). Furthermore, there was a significantly positive correlation between CCR7 positive score and intratumoral FOXP3(+) cell number (r = 0.949, P<0.001). These results revealed that CCR7 expression in gastric cancer cells and intratumoral FOXP3(+) Tregs could be considered as a co-indicator of clinical prognosis of gastric cancer.

[Preparation of anti-human integrin beta 3 monoclonal antibody and study on its antitumor activity].

AIM: To prepare the monoclonal antibody (mAb) against human integrin beta 3, and explore its role in tumor therapy. METHODS: Total RNA was isolated from human lymphocytes, and the DNA fragment encoding extra-cellular domain of human integrin beta 3 was amplified by RT-PCR. The integrin beta 3 gene was cloned into the prokaryotic expression vector pQE30, and the expression plasmid pQE30-beta 3 was transformed into E.coli M15. The expression of beta 3 protein was induced by IPTG, and the expressed beta 3 protein was purified by Ni-affinity agarose. BALB/c mice were immunized with the purified beta 3 protein, and mAb was prepared by hybridoma technique. The specificity of the mAbs was identified by Western blot. The mAbs were screened by their inhibitory effect on the tumor growth in vivo. The inhibition of the mAb to HUVEC cell growth was detected by MTT assay. The role of the mAb in inducing HUVEC apoptosis was analyzed by flow cytometry (FCM). RESULTS: The extra-cellular gene fragment of human integrin beta 3 was amplified by RT-PCR, and the expression plasmid pQE30-beta 3 was constructed. Human integrin beta 3 protein was expressed and purified, and used for immunization. Eight clones of mAb against human integrin beta 3 were successfully prepared. The mAb 4F12 was found to inhibit tumor growth in vivo and reduce blood vessels in tumor. Furthermore, the mAb 4F12 could inhibit HUVEC growth and induce apoptosis in vitro. CONCLUSION: The human integrin beta 3 protein was obtained and the mAbs against it have been prepared successfully. The mAb 4F12 can inhibit tumor growth in vivo and reduce blood vessels in tumor. One of the mechanisms of the antitumor effect is inhibition of growth and induction of apoptosis of endothelial cells of blood vessels in tumor.

Mechanisms of antiprostate cancer by gum mastic: NF-kappaB signal as target.

AIM: To study the effect of gum mastic, a natural resin, on the proliferation of androgen-independent prostate cancer PC-3 cells, and further investigate the mechanisms involved in this regulatory system, taking nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) signal as the target. METHODS: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and a flow cytometer were used to detect the effect of gum mastic on the proliferation of PC-3 cells. Then, reporter gene assay, RT-PCR, and Western blotting were carried out to study the effects of gum mastic on the NF-kappaB protein level and the NF-kappaB signal pathway. The expression of genes involved in the NF-kappaB signal pathway, including cyclin D1, inhibitors of kappaBs (I kappaB alpha), and phosphorylated Akt (p-AKT), were measured. In addition, transient transfection assays with the 5X NF-kappaB consensus sequence promoter was also used to test the effects of gum mastic. RESULTS: Gum mastic inhibited PC-3 cell growth and blocked the PC-3 cell cycle in the G1 phase. Gum mastic also suppressed NF-kappaB activity in the PC-3 cells. The expression of cyclin D1, a crucial cell cycle regulator and an NF-kappaB downstream target gene, was reduced as well. Moreover, gum mastic decreased the p-AKT protein level and increased the I kappa B alpha protein level. CONCLUSION: Gum mastic inhibited the proliferation and blocked the cell cycle progression in PC-3 cells by suppressing NF-kappaB activity and the NF-kappaB signal pathway.

[Effects of electromagnetic fields of different frequencies on proliferation and DNA damage of gallbladder cancer cells].

OBJECTIVE: To study the effects of low-power electromagnetic fields of different frequencies on proliferation and DNA damage of gallbladder cancer cells. METHODS: The cell growth curve was drawn and single cell gel electrophoresis performed to evaluate the proliferation and DNA damage of gallbladder cancer cells respectively after the cells were exposed to electromagnetic fields of different frequencies. RESULTS: After exposure to low-power electromagnetic fields of different frequencies (0.1-40 MHz), the cells displayed significant changes with obvious cell proliferation inhibition and DNA strand breakage. CONCLUSION: Low-power electromagnetic fields within the range of 0.1-40 MHz may impair the DNA strand and cause inhibition of proliferation of the gallbladder cancer cells, and these effects are related to the frequency of the electromagnetic fields but not in a linear fashion.