Urinary tract management in patients with incomplete cervical cord injury during the recovery phase.

PURPOSE: For patients with incomplete cervical cord injuries, appropriate urinary management based on an assessment of voiding and storage function of the bladder is necessary for a better prognosis, especially during the recovery phase. In our review of medical records of such patients, we identified factors related to recovery of bladder function and parameters for predicting prognosis. METHODS: In this study, we included 234 patients with incomplete cervical cord injuries admitted to Kanagawa Rehabilitation Hospital. Their medical records were retrospectively reviewed for various parameters related to final urinary management measures at discharge. Parameters included age, severity of paralysis, bladder function over time, urinary sensation and cystometry results. RESULTS: Patients were managed using urethral catheterization, suprapubic cystostomy, clean intermittent catheterization (CIC) by oneself or care givers, CIC with occasional spontaneous voiding, or spontaneous voiding alone. Bladder function improved in majority of the patients during hospitalization. The severity of paralysis and urinary sensation are predictive parameters for improvement in voiding function. In patients who were admitted with catheterization but were discharged with spontaneous voiding, the period for recovery was 85.2 days on average (range 16-142 days). CONCLUSIONS: Selection of urinary management measures for patients with incomplete cervical cord injuries can be performed adequately by considering the severity of paralysis and urinary sensation.

Activation of immune cells in bovine mammary gland secretions by zymosan-treated bovine serum.

Mastitis, caused by bacterial infection of the mammary gland, is a major disease of dairy cattle. The greatest risks of intramammary infection occur at the end of lactation and at the initiation of the next lactation when the cow calves. Treating serum with zymosan (yeast cell wall preparation) causes the complement to cleave, allowing this serum to serve as a source of complement fragment 5a (C5a), a potent chemoattractant and activator of the immune system. Our hypothesis was that intramammary infusion of zymosan-treated serum (ZTS) would recruit polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) and generate prolonged activity in lymphocytes within the mammary gland. Ultimately this could help prevent bacterial infections in cows at dry-off and at the initiation of lactation. Two ipsilateral quarters of the mammary gland of each cow were infused with ZTS (12.5 mL/quarter), and 2 contralateral quarters were infused with saline in 8 cows shortly after lactation ended. Mammary secretions were collected periodically throughout the dry period and the first 2 wk of the next lactation. Activation status of lymphocytes and PMN in those secretions was assessed based on the intracellular presence or absence of IFN-gamma and IL-8 as determined by flow cytometry. The ZTS infusion greatly increased PMN numbers in mammary secretions for the first week only. The percentage of IFN-gamma positive lymphocytes and PMN, and the percentage of IL-8 positive PMN, exhibited a sustained increase in secretions from ZTS-treated quarters through the first 2 wk of lactation. The ZTS can stimulate PMN and lymphocyte-mediated immune defense mechanisms in the mammary gland, which may provide a useful means of preventing new intramammary infections during the dry period as well as at the initiation of lactation.

Excitatory GABAergic synaptic potentials in the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus of adult rat in vitro.

The mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus (MesV) contains the somata of primary afferent neurons innervating masticatory muscle spindles and the periodontal membrane. MesV afferent somata are unique in receiving synaptic inputs. Intracellular recordings in coronal pontine slices from adult rats were made from MesV neurons identified by having Cs-sensitive inward rectification and pseudounipolar morphology. Stimuli near the MesV evoked either a cluster of action potentials superimposed on a postsynaptic potential (PSP) or an antidromic spike at resting membrane potential (RMP). Membrane hyperpolarization revealed that each cluster of action potentials consisted of an antidromic spike and a subsequent PSP. Evoked PSPs in slices and miniature postsynaptic currents (mPSCs) recorded using whole-cell patch in dissociated MesV neurons were resistant to glutamate antagonists and strychnine but were reversibly abolished by 40 microM bicuculline. Superfusion of 1-10 mM GABA decreased input resistance and depolarized the membrane. Reversal potentials for evoked PSPs and GABA-induced depolarizations were similar and close to that for mPSCs which matched the Cl- equilibrium potential. Thus activation of synapses on MesV somata evokes GABAergic PSPs that generate action potentials at RMP in the adult. These data also indicate that primary afferent MesV neurons can act as interneurons in the central control of mastication.

Molecular cloning of porcine interleukin-1beta converting enzyme and differential gene expression of IL-1beta converting enzyme, IL-1beta, and IL-18 in porcine alveolar macrophages.

We have cloned and sequenced a cDNA that contains the coding sequence of porcine interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) converting enzyme (ICE). Using degenerate oligonucleotide primers based on the amino acid sequences of the human, murine, and rat ICE, we performed the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with total RNA prepared from porcine alveolar macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to clone the cDNA of porcine ICE. The open reading frame (ORF) of the porcine ICE cDNA is 1215 base pairs (bp) in length and encodes 404 amino acids. The predicted amino acid sequence is 72.5%, 62.6%, and 64.1% homologous to the human, murine, and rat amino acid sequences, respectively. The kinetics of mRNA expression of ICE, IL-1beta, and IL-18 in porcine alveolar macrophages after LPS stimulation revealed that ICE transcripts were weakly expressed in nonstimulated condition and upregulated after LPS stimulation. Moreover, IL-1beta and IL-18 transcripts were differently expressed after LPS stimulation.

Detection of porcine interleukin-18 by sandwich ELISA and immunohistochemical staining using its monoclonal antibodies.

We describe here the development of sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (sandwich ELISA) and immunohistochemical staining for porcine interleukin-18 (PoIL-18) and their application to detection of PoIL-18 in vivo. Ten anti-PoIL-18 monoclonal antibodies (mAb), all of which were reactive with recombinant PoIL-18 by Western blotting, were established. Four (2-C-4, 9-H-6, 11-H-5, and 12-C-12) of 10 neutralized the biologic activity of PoIL-18 to induce interferon-y (IFN-gamma) from porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Four (2-C-4, 5-F-6, 9-H-6, and 12-C-12) of 10 were shown to be useful in immunohistochemical staining and detected PoIL-18 in Kupffer cells and macrophages in hepatic focal necrosis and macrophages in interstitial pneumonia in piglets with experimental endotoxemia using formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections. A sandwich ELISA was developed using mAb 7-G-8 as a capture antibody and biotinylated mAb 5-C-5 as a detection antibody. This ELISA detected PoIL-18 with a minimum detectable concentration of 20 pg/ml and did not show cross-reactivity against PoIL-1beta, IL-8, IL-12, and IFN-gamma or murine and human IL-18. Using this ELISA, PoIL-18 was detected in the plasma and the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of pigs experimentally infected with Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. The availability of this ELISA and immunohistochemical staining for PoIL-18 may contribute to a further understanding of the role of this cytokine in various porcine immune responses and diseases.

Production of monoclonal antibodies to porcine interleukin-18 and their use for immunoaffinity purification of recombinant porcine interleukin-18.

We have recently reported the cloning and expression of porcine interleukin-18 (IL-18). In this study, we describe the production of anti-porcine IL-18 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) and their use in the purification of a large amount of recombinant porcine IL-18 by immunoaffinity column chromatography. Five monoclonal antibodies (2-2-B, 2-5-B, 2-13-C, 3-1-C and 5-3-B) were established and characterized. Three (2-2-B, 3-1-C and 5-3-B) of them were of IgG1 subclass, and the other two were IgMs. Epitope analysis of the three IgG1 mAbs showed that they recognized the same epitope. All five mAbs demonstrated reactivity with baculovirus generated porcine IL-18 by immunoblot analysis. Biologically active porcine IL-18 was obtained by immunoaffinity chromatography using anti-porcine IL-18 mAb at more than 85% purity from culture supernatants of Trichoplusia ni (Tn5) derived cells infected with recombinant baculovirus containing the coding sequence of porcine mature IL-18. These results suggest that the anti-porcine IL-18 mAbs established in this study are useful for one-step purification of porcine mature IL-18 as well as the detection of porcine IL-18 by immunoblotting.

DNA mediated immunization with encoding the nucleoprotein gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus.

The immune response to a naked plasmid DNA encoding the nucleoprotein (N protein) of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) was investigated in this study. A complementary DNA of the entire N gene was amplified by RT-PCR, and inserted into a mammalian expression vector (pcDNA3.1) to construct a recombinant plasmid (pcDNA/N). To evaluate the immunogenicity of the construct, BALB/c mice were intramuscularly immunized with different doses (50, 100 and 200 microg/mouse) of pcDNA/N twice at a 5-week interval. An optimal antibody response was achieved with 100 microg of pcDNA/N. The response lasted at least 11 weeks after primary immunization. By western blotting analysis, the antibodies specifically recognized a 47 kDa protein corresponding to the viral N protein, but they did not reveal neutralizing activity against infectious TGEV in vitro. Immunoglobulin G2a was predominant among these antibodies, which was indicative of Th1 type cell activation in pcDNA/N immunized mice. Moreover, spleen cells from these mice showed stronger immune responses than those from live vaccine or parental vector immunized mice. These results suggest that the construct can elicit both humoral and cell-mediated immune (CMI) responses against TGEV N protein in mice.

Cyclosporin A, but not bursectomy, abolishes the protective immunity of chickens against Leucocytozoon caulleryi.

Chickens that survive primary infection with Leucocytozoon caulleryi show strong resistance to reinfection. Using bursectomized (BX) or cyclosporin A (CsA)-treated chickens, we performed experiments to determine which type of immunity, humoral or cellular immunity, plays an important role in the resistance of chickens against reinfection with L. caulleryi. BX chickens were inoculated with 2, 20 or 200 sporozoites of L. caulleryi intravenously at 3 weeks of age. Some BX chickens which were inoculated with 2 or 20 sporozoites survived the primary infection. These birds had no parasites in their peripheral blood after challenge infection with 5 x 10(3) sporozoites, even though they had no antibody to L. caulleryi. In contrast, CsA-treated chickens had parasitemia, serum-soluble antigen and antibodies, as did untreated chickens during primary infection. After secondary infection, CsA-treated chickens had parasitemia and serum-soluble antigen, even though they had specific antibodies to L. caulleryi whereas untreated chickens showed no parasitemia. The number of CD4(+), CD8(+), T cell receptor (TCR) alpha ss-bearing cells and TCRgamma delta-bearing cells decreased markedly in the peripheral blood of CsA-treated chickens compared to those of untreated chickens. Lymphocyte proliferation in response to concanavalin A, and T cell growth factor production, were also markedly suppressed in CsA-treated chickens. These results suggest that cell-mediated immunity plays an important role in the development of resistance of chickens against reinfection with L. caulleryi.

Relationship between glycemic control and orthostatic hypotension in type 2 diabetes mellitus--a survey by the Fukuoka Diabetes Clinic Group.

We examined the prevalence of orthostatic hypotension and its association with glycemic control, as assessed by hemoglobin A1 (HbA1) concentration, in type 2 diabetic patients. The prevalence of orthostatic hypotension in 886 diabetics who were referred to our study and in 587 diabetics who were not given any antihypertensive drugs was 7% and 6%, respectively. The relationship between orthostatic hypotension and HbA1 levels was evaluated only in subjects not receiving antihypertensive drugs, since antihypertensive agents might induce orthostatic hypotension. HbA1 levels were 11.0 +/- 2.1% in the diabetic patients with orthostatic hypotension, which was significantly higher than the HbA1 levels of 9.9 +/- 2.2% in the diabetic patients without orthostatic hypotension. Multivariate analysis also revealed that the association remained significant after adjustment for the treatment and duration of diabetes, age, sex and body mass index. These findings suggest that glycemic control contributes to the development of orthostatic hypotension in type 2 diabetic patients.

Renal complications in patients with diabetes mellitus associated with an A to G mutation of mitochondrial DNA at the 3243 position of leucine tRNA.

The substitution of guanine for adenine at position 3243 of the leucine tRNA gene of mitochondrial DNA was originally described in association with MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes). Diabetes mellitus associated with the mutation (mitochondrial diabetes) is a different phenotype from MELAS. We identified 11 patients with the mutation among 385 Japanese diabetic patients: two had MELAS and nine had mitochondrial diabetes. We present data on a male patient with mitochondrial diabetes who developed the nephrotic syndrome at the age of 23. Light microscopy revealed mesangial expansion, PAS-positive deposits and segmental sclerosis in the glomeruli. Scattered mesangial electron-dense deposits and thickening of the basement membrane were found on electron microscopy, suggesting that diabetic glomerulosclerosis accompanied by focal glomerulosclerosis (FGS). Mitochondrial diabetes may pre-dispose patients to renal complications, including forms of glomerulonephritis, such as FGS.

The presynaptic modulation of glutamate release and the membrane dysfunction induced by in vitro ischemia in rat hippocampal CA1 neurons.

Superfusion with an oxygen and glucose deprived medium (in vitro ischemia) of rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons in tissue slices produced a rapid depolarization within 5 min and thereafter showed no functional recovery (irreversible membrane dysfunction), even if oxygen and glucose were reintroduced. We previously suggested that such a rapid depolarization is triggered by the accumulation of extracellular glutamate (Glu). As a result, we examined the effects of either the activation or inhibition of presynaptic receptors, which modulate Glu release from the nerve terminal, on the potential change produced by in vitro ischemia. The adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, 8-cyclopenthyl theophylline, A2a receptor antagonist, ZM241385, and A2b receptor antagonist, alloxazine, did not significantly alter either the latency or the maximal slope of the rapid depolarization. In addition, the GABAB receptor antagonist, 2-hydroxysaclofen, or the metabotropic Glu receptor type 4 antagonist, alpha-methylserine-O-phosphate, did not change either the latency or the maximal slope. The adenosine A(1) receptor agonist, 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine, A2a receptor agonist, CGS2168, or A2b receptor agonist, 5'-(N-ethylcarboxamido)-adenosine, did not affect these parameters either. None of these drugs restored the membrane potential to the pre-exposure level after the reintroduction of oxygen and glucose. Simultaneous intracellular recordings from CA1 and CA3 pyramidal neurons in the same slices revealed the membrane of the CA3 neurons to be hyperpolarized when a rapid depolarization occurred in the CA1 neurons. These results suggest that presynaptic Glu release does not accelerate during the generation of the rapid depolarization induced by in vitro ischemia.

Isolation of parapoxvirus from a cow treated with interferon-gamma.

A virus was isolated from peripheral blood leukocytes of a cow which was kept in an isolated pen after it was injected with recombinant bovine interferon-gamma. The virus was identified as a member of genus Parapoxvirus in the family Poxviridae on the basis of electron microscopic observations and serological tests. Parapoxvirus has seldom been isolated other than from papular lesions, the characteristic sign of parapoxvirus infection. This is the first report of parapoxvirus isolation from the peripheral blood of a cow without any clinical signs. These results show that parapoxviruses are capable of causing persistent infection in cattle without clinical signs and can be activated by stress factors that induce modification of immune reactions. Relationships between the isolated virus and other parapoxviruses isolated previously from cattle in Japan were investigated and discussed.

Effects of phospholipids on the in vitro percutaneous penetration of prednisolone and analysis of mechanism by using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.

We investigated the effects of 10 phospholipids on the in vitro percutaneous penetration of prednisolone (PR) through the dorsal skin of guinea pigs. A marked enhancing effect of PR penetration was observed in the presence of phospholipids that have unsaturated acyl chains. A maximum of 68-fold enhancement was observed compared to that of control. On the contrary, phospholipids that have saturated acyl chains did not significantly increase the amount of PR passing to the receptor side. Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to monitor the outer several microns of stratum corneum (SC) surface. It was observed that phospholipids that have unsaturated acyl chains induced higher and broader absorbance shifts in the C-H bond stretching region while phospholipids that have saturated acyl chains induced lower and sharper absorbance shifts in the C-H bond stretching region. A significant parallel between the amount of PR penetrated and the lipid-chain fluidity of the SC was found. These results suggest that phospholipids may influence the percutaneous penetration of PR by changing the lipid-chain fluidity of the SC.

A comparative study of germinal center: fowls and mammals.

The mammalian germinal center is organized into a dark zone containing proliferating centroblasts and a light zone filled with nondividing B cells (called centrocytes), follicular dendritic cells and a few scattered T cells. We clarified these two zones in the chicken germinal center with immunohistology. Proliferating cells and immunoglobulin negative cells were detected in the circumference ring of the chicken germinal center. The central part of the chicken germinal center contained B cells expressing immunoglobulin, follicular dendritic cells and a few T cells. Most of the B cells in the central part of the chicken germinal center did not enter into the S phase. These results suggest that the chicken germinal center is also organized into the dark zone (the circumference ring of germinal center) and the light zone (the central part of germinal center).

Development of maternal IgG-free chick obtained from surgically bursectomized hen.

IgG-free eggs and chicks were developed, so as to study the role of maternal IgG in the development of the immune system. Surgical bursectomy on the 18th day of incubation deprived chickens of B cells and eliminated IgG synthesis. Bursectomized chickens are usually dead before sexual maturity under conventional conditions. When surgically bursectomized chickens were housed in an isolated clean room and antibiotics were administered to them, they could survive to sexual maturity. Finally, we succeeded in obtaining IgG-free fertilized eggs and maternal IgG-free chicks from surgically bursectomized hens. The amount of yolk IgG in IgG-free eggs was one-ten thousandth less than that in normal eggs. The level of IgM in the serum of maternal IgG-free chicks reached six times higher than that of normal chicks 5 days after hatching.

Production of biologically active, heterodimeric porcine interleukin-12 using a monocistronic baculoviral expression system.

A baculoviral expression system for the production of biologically active, heterodimeric interleukin (IL)-12 was developed by utilizing foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) self-cleaving peptide, 2A. Recombinant porcine IL-12 (rpoIL-12) was produced by insect cells after infection with recombinant baculoviruses expressing the gene encoding a fusion protein of p35 and p40 subunits of IL-12 connected with 2A. By reducing and non-reducing SDS-PAGE analyses, it was demonstrated that rpoIL-12 had a heterodimeric structure which was resulted from 2A-dependent cleavage of the precursor fusion protein. In contrast, uncleaved, monomeric rpoIL-12 was produced by infection with baculoviruses expressing the gene lacking the 2A sequence. To assess the biological activities of these recombinants, we performed the proliferation assays of PHA-activated human PBMCs. The heterodimeric rpoIL-12 induced proliferation in a dose-dependent manner, whereas the uncleaved rpoIL-12 did not. Moreover, such biological activity was specifically inhibited by addition of anti-IL-12 antibodies or rpoIL-12 p40. These observations suggest that FMDV 2A can exert its self-cleaving activity even in a heterologous system, and that biologically active, heterodimeric rpoIL-12 can be generated by monocistronic expression of the p35/p40 fusion gene in combination with the 2A sequence.

Expression of proinflammatory cytokine mRNA in the lymphatic organs of adult and neonatal pigs.

Inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in the lymphatic organs of neonatal, 1-month-old and adult pigs was compared. The mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, IL-18 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha in the spleen, thymus, tonsil and popliteal and mesenteric lymph nodes was investigated by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Stronger IL-1beta mRNA expression was observed in the 1-day-old and 1-month-old piglets than in the adult pigs. In thymus, tonsil and mesenteric lymph node, IL-1beta mRNA expression in 1-day-old piglets was stronger than in 1-month-old pigs. The expression of IL-6 mRNA in the 1-day-old and 1-month-old tonsil tended to be stronger than in the adult pigs. IL-18 and TNF-alpha mRNA expression was constant in all the samples examined. The expression of IL-1beta and IL-6 mRNA may reflect an inflammatory reaction against the exo- and endogenous foreign bodies occurring in the lymphatic organs, especially in the tonsil, of neonatal piglets.

Suppressive effect of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from pigs infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae on chemiluminescence of porcine peripheral neutrophils.

Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from pigs experimentally infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae suppressed the chemiluminescence (CL) response of porcine polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN). The suppressive effect was significantly correlated with the concentration of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the BALF. Furthermore, purified human PGE2 suppressed the CL response of porcine PMN. The increased level of PGE2 following infection with M. hyopneumoniae may be responsible for the suppression of PMN function in the airway of infected pigs. The decrease of PMN function may be responsible for exacerbation of mycoplasmal pneumonia by secondary infection with pulmonary bacterial pathogens.

Increased levels of tumor necrosis factor and interleukin 1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids from pigs infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae.

We examined the levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin-1 (IL-1) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) from pigs experimentally infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae using biological assays with WEHI-164 cells and D10.G4.1 cells, respectively. Increased TNF-alpha and IL-1 in BALF were found in infected pigs with gross and/or microscopic lesions. A time-course study suggested TNF-alpha and IL-1 to be persistently elevated in infected pigs. Their presence in BALF would thus appear to be associated with the development of pneumonic lesions in M. hyopneumoniae infected pigs.

Detection of interleukin-6 and prostaglandin E2 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids of pigs experimentally infected with Mycoplasma hyponeumoniae.

In this study, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) were detected in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF) from pigs experimentally infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. IL-6 was detected at 2 weeks post-inoculation (PI), and significantly increased levels of PGE2 were observed at 4 weeks PI. In the BALF collected from infected pigs at 4 weeks PI, the levels of IL-6 increased significantly in the pigs with pneumonic lesions. However, increased levels of PGE2 were observed in all the infected pigs.