Comparison between slow and rapid freezing for adrenal gland cryopreservation and xenotransplantation.

The aim of our study was to examine whether slow or rapid cryopreservation of adrenal xenografts affected xenotransplant outcome. Adrenal xenografts were got from newborn piglets (<24 h after birth). Receptor rats were randomly divided into four groups: a bilateral adrenalectomy group, fresh xenotransplantation group, rapid cryopreservation xenotransplantation group, and a slow cryopreservation xenotransplantation group. 30 days after xenotransplantation, the survival rates of rats in the fresh xenotransplantation group, rapid cryopreservation xenotransplantation group and slow cryopreservation xenotransplantation group were 80 %, 60 % and 60 %, respectively, which were significantly higher than 40 % of the bilateral adrenalectomy group. In addition, the survival rate of rats in the slow cryopreservation group was consistently significantly higher than that in the rapid cryopreservation group at 29 days after xenotransplantation. Morphological observation showed that there were a few medulla cells existed in the adrenal glands in the slow cryopreservation group after 30 days of xenotransplantation, but no medulla cells were found in the rapid cryopreservation group. The plasma cortisol level of rats in the fresh xenotransplantation group and the slow xenotransplantation group 30 days after xenotransplantation was significantly higher than that of the rapid cryopreservation group and bilateral adrenalectomy group (P < 0.05). The levels of liver glycogen and cholesterol in the xenotransplantation rats were increased relative to those of the bilateral adrenalectomy rats, and close to normal level. In conclusion, compared with rapidly frozen preserved grafts, slowly frozen preserved grafts not only ensure the structural integrity of adrenal tissues, but also have corresponding physiological functions, which provid a basic research opportunities for the preservation of xenografts and the treatment of adrenal corticosteroid deficiency. Moreover, these findings can provide evidence for xenotransplantation in the treatment of Addison's disease (adrenal cortex hormone deficiency).

[Features of condylography curves].

With the kinematic face bow, the condyle movements representing temporomandibular joint function can be recorded instantly. The condylography curves can be utilized for diagnostic analysis, as different pathophysiological conditions have unique curve patterns. By tracing the specific alterations on the curves, the structural and functional statuses of the temporomandibular joint can be predicted. However, to the best of our knowledge, no standardized and practicable evaluation protocol for jaw movement tracing exists. In the current study, the features of either normal or abnormal curves were reviewed. Such features can be clinically used for determining temporomandibular joint status, thereby contributing to a comprehensive diagnosis.

Progress of Indirect Estimation Methods for Mechanical Property of Articular Cartilage / 医用生物力学

With extraordinary mechanical properties, articular cartilage is one of the most critical factors in human movement and load transmission. With the increase of sports participation and population aging, more and more patients suffer from cartilage injury and related diseases. Accurate acquisition of mechanical properties for articular cartilage is the key process of cartilage injury and functional evaluation. In this paper, the research progress of indirect estimation for mechanical properties of articular cartilage was summarized. Furthermore, some new perspectives were prospected on mechanical characterization of articular cartilage.

Distribution and infectious characteristics of re-positive cases infected with SARS-CoV-2 / 中华流行病学杂志

Domestic and foreign literatures related to the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 and the re-positive cases infected with SARS-CoV-2 were reviewed, and the characteristics and infectivity of the re-positive cases were analyzed to provide scientific evidence for the improvement of case management and the development of measures to stop the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Existing studies have shown that re-positive rate of SARS-CoV-2 ranged from 2.4% to 19.8%, the median of interval between re-positive detection and discharge was 4-15 days. Following the second course of the disease, the anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM, IgG and IgA positive rates of the cases were 11.11%-86.08%, 52.00%-100.00% and 61.54%-100.00% respectively, the total antibody and neutralizing antibody positive rates were 98.72% and 88.46%. The viral load of the re-positive cases was lower than that in the initial infection. At least 3 380 re-positive cases have been reported globally. SARS-CoV-2 strains were isolated from the samples of 3 re-positive cases (1 immunodeficiency case and 2 cases with abnormal pulmonary imaging). There were close contacts that were infected by an asymptomatic case taking immunosuppressive agents. In conclusion, the infectivity of re-positive cases infected with SARS-CoV-2 is generally very low. Rare re-positive cases infected with SARS-CoV-2 might cause further transmission. The management approach for the re-positive cases can be based on the assessment of the individual transmission risk according to the pathogen detection results.

Early containment strategies and core measures for prevention and control of novel coronavirus pneumonia in China / 中华预防医学杂志

In December 2019, novel coronavirus pneumonia epidemic occurred in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and spread rapidly across the country. In the early stages of the epidemic, China adopted the containment strategy and implemented a series of core measures around this strategic point, including social mobilization, strengthening case isolation and close contacts tracking management, blocking epidemic areas and traffic control to reduce personnel movements and increase social distance, environmental measures and personal protection, with a view to controlling the epidemic as soon as possible in limited areas such as Wuhan. This article summarizes the background, key points and core measures in the country and provinces. It sent prospects for future prevention and control strategies.

Early containment strategies and core measures for prevention and control of novel coronavirus pneumonia in China / 中华预防医学杂志

@#In December 2019, novel coronavirus pneumonia epidemic occurred in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and spread rapidly across the country. In the early stages of the epidemic, China adopted the containment strategy and implemented a series of core measures around this strategic point, including social mobilization, strengthening case isolation and close contacts tracking management, blocking epidemic areas and traffic control to reduce personnel movements and increase social distance, environmental measures and personal protection, with a view to controlling the epidemic as soon as possible in limited areas such as Wuhan. This article summarizes the background, key points and core measures in the country and provinces. It sent prospects for future prevention and control strategies.

Analysis on immunization policy and key elements from countries with high influenza vaccine converage / 中华预防医学杂志

Vaccination is the best intervention to prevent influenza and its complications. Effective influenza immunization strategy facilitates influenza vaccine coverage to protect the population and reduce disease burden. This paper analyzes related influenza policies from six countries with high vaccination rates and summarizes five common key elements of them. Additionally, we propose the proper immunization strategy of influenza vaccine in China.

Evaluation of the application of moving epidemic method on making influenza epidemic thresholds in the 7 climate zones in China / 中华预防医学杂志

Objective@#We planned to evaluate the effectiveness of moving epidemic method (MEM) in calculating influenza epidemic threshold of 7 climatic zones in China mainland.@*Methods@#The positive rate of influenza virus was obtained from the National Influenza Surveillance Network System from 2010/2011 to 2017/2018. We divided the 31 provinces into 7 climatic zones according to previous literatures and applied MEM to calculate the influenza epidemic threshold of 2018/2019 influenza season for these climatic zones. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were calculated to evaluate the effectiveness of MEM.@*Results@#Pre-epidemic threshold (the positive rate of influenza virus) varied from 9.66% (temperate zone) to 16.36% (subtropical zone) for 2018/2019 influenza season. The gap between pre-epidemic and post-epidemic thresholds was less than 5% except for plateau zone. The sensitivity was 86.16% (95CI:66.81%-98.23%), the specificity was 94.92% (95CI: 91.13%-98.41%), the positive predictive value was 89.87% (95%CI: 84.39%-94.38%), the negative predictive value was 92.96% (95%CI: 84.46%-99.17%).@*Conclusion@#Overall, moving epidemic Method performs well in calculating influenza epidemic threshold in China, much better than the previous study.

A systematic review of the economic burden of influenza in China / 中华预防医学杂志

Objectives@#To understand the status of studies about influenza economic burden in mainland China and summarize their major results.@*Methods@#The words of influenza, flu, cost, economic, burden, effectiveness, benefit, utility, China, and Chinese, were used as search keywords. Journal papers published during 2000-2018 were searched from Chinese electronic databases (CNKI and Wanfang) and English electronic databases (PubMed, Web of science, EconLit and Cochrane Library). The language of literature was restricted to Chinese and English. A total of 23 effective documents were included, and the descriptive characteristics, research indexes and methods included in the literature were analyzed. The monetary unit used in this review is Chinese Yuan (CNY).@*Results@#The 23 study sites were mainly in the relatively developed and populous regions. The total cost per capita of laboratory-confirmed influenza,of all age-group was reported in 6 literatures, and only 4 literatures reported it in out-patients (range: 768.0-999.9 CNY), Only one study reported this indicator in inpatients (9 832.0 CNY). One literature reported the total cost per capita of influenza-like illness,, which was 205.1 CNY. And one literature reported that the direct medical cost of inpatients per capita in children under 5 years of age was 6 072.0 CNY while two literature reported this index for the elderly over 60 years of age, ranging from 14 250.0 to 19 349.1 CNY. Four articles reported the economic burden of influenza in urban and rural areas, one of which showed that the related expenses of urban influenza inpatients accounted for 31% of the average annual income, while which for the rural flow was 113%.@*Conclusion@#The average economic burden of lab-confirmed influenza case is higher than that of influenza-like illness, and there are differences in outpatient indirect expenses and inpatients direct medical expenses. The direct medical burden for the hospitalized 60-years-and-beyond influenza case group is heavier thar other age group. By region, the influenza associated individual economic burden in rural area is higher than that of urban area..

The mortality burden of influenza in China: a systematic review / 中华预防医学杂志

Objective@#To systematically review the mortality burden study of influenza in mainland China.@*Method@#"influenza", "flu", "H1N1", "pandemic", "mortality", "death", "fatality", "burden", "China" and "Chinese" were used as keywords, and a systematic literature search was conducted to identify articles in three English databases (PubMed, Web of Science and Embase) and three Chinese database (CNKI, WanFang and VIP) during 1990-2018 (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan). The language of literature was restricted to Chinese and English. The inclusion criteria were human-oriented researches with method based on population, and research indexes included mortality and excess mortality. The exclusion criteria were non-primary research materials, predictive research and research on the burden of avian influenza related deaths. A total of 17 literatures were included, and the basic information to descriptive characteristics, methodology of modeling and the corresponding results were extracted.@*Results@#All the 17 studies adopted indirect statistical models, with 14 of which adopted the regression model, and all the research index was excess mortality. All causes (16 studies), respiratory and circulatory diseases (14 studies) and pneumonia and influenza (10 studies) were the main causes of death associated with influenza. Influenza associated mortality burden in the elderly was higher, with the lowest excess mortality rates of all causes, respiratory and circulatory diseases, pneumonia and influenza being 49.57, 30.80 and 0.69 per 100 000 people, and the highest rates being 228.16, 170.20 and 30.35 per 100 000 people, respectively. In the non-elderly, the corresponding lowest rates were -0.27, -0.08 and 0.04 per 100 000 people respectively, and the highest rates were 3.63, 2.6 and 0.91 per 100 000 people, respectively. The influenza-related excess mortality was higher in the north, with a minimum of 7.8 per 100 000 and a maximum of 18.0 per 100 000, and slightly lower in the south, with a minimum of 6.11 per 100 000 and a maximum of 18.7 per 100 000. There were also differences in deaths caused by different influenza virus subtypes, with influenza A(H3N2) and influenza B virus possibly posing a heavier mortality burden.@*Conclusions@#Studies on influenza mortality burden is mainly based on indirect model and urban level in China. The mortality burden of influenza in the elderly, the northern and subtype A(H3N2) and B were more severe.

Temporal-spatial analysis of bacillary dysentery in the Three Gorges Area of China, 2005-2016 / 中华流行病学杂志

Objective To analyze the spatial and temporal distributions of bacillary dysentery in Chongqing,Yichang and Enshi (the Three Gorges Area) from 2005 to 2016,and provide evidence for the disease prevention and control.Methods The incidence data of bacillary dysentery in the Three Gorges Area during this period were collected from National Notifiable Infectious Disease Reporting System.The spatial-temporal scan statistic was conducted with software SaTScan 9.4 and bacillary dysentery clusters were visualized with software ArcGIS 10.3.Results A total of 126 196 cases were reported in the Three Gorges Area during 2005-2016,with an average incidence rate of 29.67/100 000.The overall incidence was in a downward trend,with an average annual decline rate of 4.74％.Cases occurred all the year round but with an obvious seasonal increase between May and October.Among the reported cases,44.71％ (56 421/126 196) were children under 5-year-old,the cases in children outside child care settings accounted for 41.93％ (52 918/126 196) of the total.The incidence rates in districts of Yuzhong,Dadukou,Jiangbei,Shapingba,Jiulongpo,Nanan,Yubei,Chengkou of Chongqing and districts of Xiling and Wujiagang of Yichang city of Hubei province were high,ranging from 60.20/100 000 to 114.81/100 000.Spatial-temporal scan statistic for the spatial and temporal distributions of bacillary dysentery during this period revealed that the temporal distribution was during May-October,and there were 12 class Ⅰ clusters,35 class Ⅱ clusters,and 9 clusters without statistical significance in counties with high incidence.All the class Ⅰ clusters were in urban area of Chongqing (Yuzhong,Dadukou,Jiangbei,Shapingba,Jiulongpo,Nanan,Beibei,Yubei,Banan)and surrounding counties,and the class Ⅱ clusters transformed from concentrated distribution to scattered distribution.Conclusions Temporal and spatial cluster of bacillary dysentery incidence existed in the three gorges area during 2005-2016.It is necessary to strengthen the bacillary dysentery prevention and control in urban areas of Chongqing and Yichang.

Current situation and challenges on the implementation of prevention and control programs regarding the seasonal influenza, in China / 中华流行病学杂志

In China,the control and prevention programs on any disease has always been based on comprehensive strategies.Take influenza as an example,related contents would include:strengthening the surveillance,recommendation and promotion of vaccination,rational use of antiviral drugs,conducting outbreak investigation and control,and publicizing individual protective measures,etc.In terms of the response to challenges,specific proposals would include:adjustment of case reports,optimization of surveillance systems,reinforcement of vaccination recommendation by health care workers,improvement of access to vaccination,development of rapid diagnostic reagents,and rational use of antiviral drugs,etc.

Temporal-spatial analysis of bacillary dysentery in the Three Gorges Area of China, 2005-2016 / 中华流行病学杂志

Objective: To analyze the spatial and temporal distributions of bacillary dysentery in Chongqing, Yichang and Enshi (the Three Gorges Area) from 2005 to 2016, and provide evidence for the disease prevention and control. Methods: The incidence data of bacillary dysentery in the Three Gorges Area during this period were collected from National Notifiable Infectious Disease Reporting System. The spatial-temporal scan statistic was conducted with software SaTScan 9.4 and bacillary dysentery clusters were visualized with software ArcGIS 10.3. Results: A total of 126 196 cases were reported in the Three Gorges Area during 2005-2016, with an average incidence rate of 29.67/100 000. The overall incidence was in a downward trend, with an average annual decline rate of 4.74%. Cases occurred all the year round but with an obvious seasonal increase between May and October. Among the reported cases, 44.71% (56 421/126 196) were children under 5-year-old, the cases in children outside child care settings accounted for 41.93% (52 918/126 196) of the total. The incidence rates in districts of Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nanan, Yubei, Chengkou of Chongqing and districts of Xiling and Wujiagang of Yichang city of Hubei province were high, ranging from 60.20/100 000 to 114.81/100 000. Spatial-temporal scan statistic for the spatial and temporal distributions of bacillary dysentery during this period revealed that the temporal distribution was during May-October, and there were 12 class Ⅰ clusters, 35 class Ⅱ clusters, and 9 clusters without statistical significance in counties with high incidence. All the class Ⅰ clusters were in urban area of Chongqing (Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nanan, Beibei, Yubei, Banan) and surrounding counties, and the class Ⅱ clusters transformed from concentrated distribution to scattered distribution. Conclusions: Temporal and spatial cluster of bacillary dysentery incidence existed in the three gorges area during 2005-2016. It is necessary to strengthen the bacillary dysentery prevention and control in urban areas of Chongqing and Yichang.

Surveillance data on notifiable infectious diseases among students aged 6-22 years in China,2011-2016 / 中华流行病学杂志

Objective To analyze the epidemiological characteristics of notifiable infectious diseases among Chinese students from 2011 to 2016 and to provide reference for the effective prevention and control programs on infectious disease among students.Methods Both morbidity and mortality of notifiable infectious diseases among Chinese students aged 6-22 years from 2011 to 2016 were analyzed,with main characteristics of the disease described.Results During 2011 to 2016,morbidities of Categories A,B and C infectious diseases among the Chinese students aged 6-22 years showed a decreasing trend,from 248.24/100 000 in 2012 to 158.57/100 000 in 2016.Mortality rates of Category A,B and C infectious diseases had also decreased from 0.12/100 000 in 2011 to 0.07/100 000 in 2016.The average morbidity of the top four diseases from Category A and B infectious diseases appeared as:tuberculosis (16.24/100 000),scarlet fever (9.39/100 000),hepatitis B (7.69/100 000) and bacillary and amebic dysentery (7.15/100 000).The average rates of mortality on the top four diseases appeared as:rabies (0.044 8/100 000),HIV/AIDS (0.027 7/100 000),tuberculosis (0.008 0/100 000) and Japanese encephalitis (0.005 9/100 000).The average rates of morbidity on the top four diseases appeared as:mumps (75.81/100 000),hand-foot-mouth disease (28.55/100 000),other infectious diarrhea (22.41/100 000) and influenza (15.67/100 000) in the Category C.Reported death cases were from hand-foot-mouth disease (11 cases),influenza (9 cases),mumps (1 case) and rubella (1 case).The prevalence rates varied among different student populations,with higher HIV/AIDS,hepatitis B and tuberculosis rates among college and senior high school students,while higher mumps,influenza and hand-foot-mouth disease rates among primary school and junior high school students.Conclusions Both morbidity and mortality of notiflable infectious diseases among Chinese students aged 6-22 years had decreased significantly in 2011-2016.However,the major infectious diseases had become new challenges among students.HIV/AIDS had become a key infectious disease among college students and the relatively high prevalence of tuberculosis was seen in college and high school students.

Current situation and challenges on the implementation of prevention and control programs regarding the seasonal influenza, in China / 中华流行病学杂志

In China, the control and prevention programs on any disease has always been based on comprehensive strategies. Take influenza as an example, related contents would include: strengthening the surveillance, recommendation and promotion of vaccination, rational use of antiviral drugs, conducting outbreak investigation and control, and publicizing individual protective measures, etc. In terms of the response to challenges, specific proposals would include: adjustment of case reports, optimization of surveillance systems, reinforcement of vaccination recommendation by health care workers, improvement of access to vaccination, development of rapid diagnostic reagents, and rational use of antiviral drugs, etc.

Technical guidelines for seasonal influenza vaccination in China (2018-2019) / 中华预防医学杂志

Seasonal influenza vaccination is the most effective way to prevent influenza virus infection and complications from infection. Currently, China has licensed trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV3) and quadrivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV4), including split-virus influenza vaccine and subunit vaccine. Except for a few major cities, influenza vaccine is a category Ⅱ vaccine, which means influenza vaccination is voluntary, and recipients must pay for it. To strengthen the technical guidance for prevention and control of influenza and operational research on influenza vaccination in China, the National Immunization Advisory Committee (NIAC) Influenza Vaccine Technical Working Group (TWG), updated the 2014 technical guidelines and compiled the "Technical guidelines for seasonal influenza vaccination in China (2018-2019)" . The main updates in this version include: epidemiology, disease burden, types of influenza vaccines, northern hemisphere influenza vaccination composition for the 2018-2019 season, IIV3 and IIV4 immune response, durability of immunity, immunogenicity, vaccine efficacy, effectiveness, safety, cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit. The influenza vaccine TWG provided the recommendations for influenza vaccination for the 2018-2019 influenza season based on existing scientific evidence. The recommendations described in this report include the following: Points of Vaccination clinics (PoVs) should provide influenza vaccination to all persons aged 6 months and above who are willing to be vaccinated and do not have contraindications. No preferential recommendation is made for one influenza vaccine product over another for persons for whom more than one licensed, recommended, and appropriate product is available. To decrease the risk of severe infections and complications due to influenza virus infection among high risk groups, the recommendations prioritize seasonal influenza vaccination for children aged 6-59 months, adults ≥60 years of age, persons with specific chronic diseases, healthcare workers, the family members and caregivers of infants <6 months of age, and pregnant women or women who plan to become pregnant during the influenza season. Children aged 6 months through 8 years require 2 doses of influenza vaccine administered a minimum of 4 weeks apart during their first season of vaccination for optimal protection. If they were vaccinated in 2017-2018 influenza season or a prior season, 1 dose is recommended. People more than 8 years old require 1 dose of influenza vaccine. It is recommended that people receive their influenza vaccination by the end of October. Influenza vaccination should be offered as soon as the vaccination is available. For the people unable to be vaccinated before the end of October, influenza vaccination will continue to be offered for the whole season. Influenza vaccine is also recommended for use in pregnant women during any trimester. These guidelines are intended for use by staff members of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at all levels who work on influenza control and prevention, PoVs staff members, healthcare workers from the departments of pediatrics, internal medicine, and infectious diseases, and staff members of maternity and child care institutions at all levels.

Surveillance data on notifiable infectious diseases among students aged 6-22 years in China, 2011-2016 / 中华流行病学杂志

Objective: To analyze the epidemiological characteristics of notifiable infectious diseases among Chinese students from 2011 to 2016 and to provide reference for the effective prevention and control programs on infectious disease among students. Methods: Both morbidity and mortality of notifiable infectious diseases among Chinese students aged 6-22 years from 2011 to 2016 were analyzed, with main characteristics of the disease described. Results: During 2011 to 2016, morbidities of Categories A, B and C infectious diseases among the Chinese students aged 6-22 years showed a decreasing trend, from 248.24/100 000 in 2012 to 158.57/100 000 in 2016. Mortality rates of Category A, B and C infectious diseases had also decreased from 0.12/100 000 in 2011 to 0.07/100 000 in 2016. The average morbidity of the top four diseases from Category A and B infectious diseases appeared as: tuberculosis (16.24/100 000), scarlet fever (9.39/100 000), hepatitis B (7.69/100 000) and bacillary and amebic dysentery (7.15/100 000). The average rates of mortality on the top four diseases appeared as: rabies (0.044 8/100 000), HIV/AIDS (0.027 7/100 000), tuberculosis (0.008 0/100 000) and Japanese encephalitis (0.005 9/100 000). The average rates of morbidity on the top four diseases appeared as: mumps (75.81/100 000), hand-foot-mouth disease (28.55/100 000), other infectious diarrhea (22.41/100 000) and influenza (15.67/100 000) in the Category C. Reported death cases were from hand-foot-mouth disease (11 cases), influenza (9 cases), mumps (1 case) and rubella (1 case). The prevalence rates varied among different student populations, with higher HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B and tuberculosis rates among college and senior high school students, while higher mumps, influenza and hand-foot-mouth disease rates among primary school and junior high school students. Conclusions: Both morbidity and mortality of notifiable infectious diseases among Chinese students aged 6-22 years had decreased significantly in 2011-2016. However, the major infectious diseases had become new challenges among students. HIV/AIDS had become a key infectious disease among college students and the relatively high prevalence of tuberculosis was seen in college and high school students.

Current situation and related policies on the implementation and promotion of influenza vaccination, in China / 中华流行病学杂志

Influenza can be prevented through annual appropriate vaccination against the virus concerned.In China,influenza vaccine is categorized as "Class Ⅱ " infectious diseases which the cost is paid out of the user's pockets.The annual coverage of influenza vaccination had been 2％-3％.The main reasons for the low coverage would include the following factors:lacking awareness on both the disease and vaccine,poor accessibility of vaccination service,and the cost of vaccination.To reduce the health and economic burden associated with influenza,comprehensive policies should be improved,targeting the coverage of seasonal influenza vaccination.These items would include:① Different financing reimbursement schemes and mechanisms to improve the aspiration on vaccination and on the vaccine coverage in high-risk groups,as young children,elderly,people with underlying medical conditions;② to ameliorate equality of vaccination services;③ to improve knowledge of the health care workers (HCWs) and the public on influenza and related vaccines;④ to improve clinical and preventive medical practice and vaccination among HCWs through revising clinical guidelines,pathway and consensus of experts;⑤ to provide more convenient,accessible and normative vaccination service system;⑥ to strengthen research and development as well as marketing on novel influenza vaccines;⑦ to revise items regarding the contraindication for influenza vaccine on pregnancy women,stated in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

Strategy for prevention and control of imported infectious disease / 中华流行病学杂志

The process of globalization increases the risk of global transmission of infectious diseases,resulting in pressure for country's prevention and control of imported infectious disease.Based on the risk assessment of disease importation and local transmission,a strategy that conducting importation prevention and routine prevention and control before the importation of disease and taking emergency control measures after the importation of disease was developed.In addition,it is important to take part in global infectious disease response action,aid the countries with outbreak or epidemic to actively decrease the risk of disease importation.

Technical guidelines for seasonal influenza vaccination in China, 2018-2019 / 中华流行病学杂志

Seasonal influenza vaccination is the most effective way to prevent influenza virus infection and its complications.Currently,China has licensed trivalent (IIV3) and quadrivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV4),including split-virus influenza vaccine and subunit vaccine.In most parts of China,influenza vaccine is a category Ⅱ vaccine,which means influenza vaccination is voluntary,and recipients need to pay for it.To strengthen the technical guidance for prevention and control of influenza and the operational research on influenza vaccination in China,the National Immunization Advisory Committee (NIAC),Influenza Vaccine Technical Working Group (TWG),updated the 2014 technical guidelines and compiled the "Technical guidelines for seasonal influenza vaccination in China (2018-2019)",based on most recent existing scientific evidences.The main updates include:epidemiology and disease burden of influenza,types of influenza vaccines,northern hemisphere influenza vaccination composition for the 2018-2019 season,and,IIV3 and IIV4 vaccines' major immune responses,durability of immunity,immunogenicity,vaccine efficacy,effectiveness,safety,cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit.The recommendations include:Points of Vaccination clinics (PoVs) should provide influenza vaccination to all persons aged 6 months and above who are willing to be vaccinated and do not have contraindications.No preferential recommendation is made for any influenza vaccine product for persons who can accept ≥ 1 licensed,recommended,and appropriate products.To decrease the risk of severe infections and complications due to influenza virus infection among high risk groups,the recommendations prioritize seasonal influenza vaccination for children aged 6-60 months,adults ≥60 years of age,persons with specific chronic diseases,healthcare workers,the family members and caregivers of infants ＜6 months of age,and pregnant women or women who plan to pregnant during the influenza season.Children aged 6 months to 8 years old require 2 doses of influenza vaccine administered a minimum of 4 weeks apart during their first season of vaccination for optimal protection.If they were vaccinated in previous influenza season,1 dose is recommended.People ≥ 9 years old require 1 dose of influenza vaccine.It is recommended that people receive their influenza vaccination by the end of October.Influenza vaccination should be offered as soon as the vaccination is available.Influenza vaccination should continue to be available for those unable to be vaccinated before the end of October during the whole season.Influenza vaccine is also recommended for use in pregnant women during any trimester.These guidelines are intended for CDC members who are working on influenza control and prevention,PoVs members,healthcare workers from the departments of pediatrics,internal medicine,and infectious diseases,and members of materuity and child care institutions at all levels.