Unlocking the Na-Storage Behavior in Hard Carbon Anode by Mass Spectrometry.

Hard carbon (HC) is a promising anode candidate for Na-ion batteries (NIBs) because of its excellent Na-storage performance, abundance, and low cost. However, a precise understanding of its Na-storage behavior remains elusive. Herein, based on the D2O/H2SO4-based TMS results collected on charged/discharged state HC electrodes, detailed Na-storage mechanisms (the Na-storage states and active sites in different voltage regions), specific SEI dynamic evolution process (formation, rupture, regeneration and loss), and irreversible capacity contribution (dead Na0, NaH, etc.) were elucidated. Moreover, by employing the online electrochemical mass spectrometry (OEMS) to monitor the gassing behavior of HC-Na half-cell during the overdischarging process, a surprising rehydrogen evolution reaction (re-HER) process at around 0.02 V vs Na+/Na was identified, indicating the occurrence of Na-plating above 0 V vs Na+/Na. Additionally, the typical fluorine ethylene carbonate (FEC) additive was demonstrated to reduce the accumulation of dead Na0 and inhibit the re-HER process triggered by plated Na.

Unlocking Dynamic Solvation Chemistry and Hydrogen Evolution Mechanism in Aqueous Zinc Batteries.

Understanding the interfacial hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is crucial to regulate the electrochemical behavior in aqueous zinc batteries. However, the mechanism of HER related to solvation chemistry remains elusive, especially the time-dependent dynamic evolution of the hydrogen bond (H-bond) under an electric field. Herein, we combine in situ spectroscopy with molecular dynamics simulation to unravel the dynamic evolution of the interfacial solvation structure. We find two critical change processes involving Zn-electroplating/stripping, including the initial electric double layer establishment to form an H2O-rich interface (abrupt change) and the subsequent dynamic evolution of an H-bond (gradual change). Moreover, the number of H-bonds increases, and their strength weakens in comparison with the bulk electrolyte under bias potential during Zn2+ desolvation, forming a diluted interface, resulting in massive hydrogen production. On the contrary, a concentrated interface (H-bond number decreases and strength enhances) is formed and produces a small amount of hydrogen during Zn2+ solvation. The insights on the above results contribute to deciphering the H-bond evolution with competition/corrosion HER during Zn-electroplating/stripping and clarifying the essence of electrochemical window widened and HER suppression by high concentration. This work presents a new strategy for aqueous electrolyte regulation by benchmarking the abrupt change of the interfacial state under an electric field as a zinc performance-enhancement criterion.

Gradient Interphase Engineering Enabled by Anionic Redox for High-Voltage and Long-Life Li-Ion Batteries.

Intelligent utilization of the anionic redox reaction (ARR) in Li-rich cathodes is an advanced strategy for the practical implementation of next-generation high-energy-density rechargeable batteries. However, due to the intrinsic complexity of ARR (e.g., nucleophilic attacks), the instability of the cathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) on a Li-rich cathode presents more challenges than typical high-voltage cathodes. Here, we manipulate CEI interfacial engineering by introducing an all-fluorinated electrolyte and exploiting its interaction with the nucleophilic attack to construct a gradient CEI containing a pair of fluorinated layers on a Li-rich cathode, delivering enhanced interfacial stability. Negative/detrimental nucleophilic electrolyte decomposition has been efficiently evolved to further reinforce CEI fabrication, resulting in the construction of LiF-based indurated outer shield and fluorinated polymer-based flexible inner sheaths. Gradient interphase engineering dramatically improved the capacity retention of the Li-rich cathode from 43 to 71% after 800 cycles and achieved superior cycling stability in anode-free and pouch-type full cells (98.8% capacity retention, 220 cycles), respectively.

Full-Dimensional Analysis of Gaseous Products to Unlocking In Depth Thermal Runaway Mechanism of Li-Ion Batteries.

In this study, state-of-the-art on-line pyrolysis MS (OP-MS) equipped with temperature-controlled cold trap and on-line pyrolysis GC/MS (OP-GC/MS) injected through high-vacuum negative-pressure gas sampling (HVNPGS) programming are originally designed/constructed to identify/quantify the dynamic change of common permanent gases and micromolecule organics from the anode/cathode-electrolyte reactions during thermal runaway (TR) process, and corresponding TR mechanisms are further perfected/complemented. On LiCx anode side, solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) would undergo continuous decomposition and regeneration, and the R-H+ (e.g., HF, ROH, etc.) species derived from electrolyte decomposition would continue to react with Li/LiCx to generate H2. Up to above 200 °C, the O2 would release from the charged NCM cathode and organic radicals would be consumed/oxidized by evolved O2 to form COx, H2O, and more corrosive HF. On the contrary, charged LFP cathode does not present obvious O2 evolution during heating process and the unreacted flammable/toxic organic species would exit in the form of high temperature/high-pressure (HT/HP) vapors within batteries, indicating higher potential safety risks. Additionally, the in depth understanding of the TR mechanism outlined above provides a clear direction for the design/modification of thermostable electrodes and non-flammable electrolytes for safer batteries.

Revealing the Dynamic Evolution of Electrolyte Configuration on the Cathode-Electrolyte Interface by Visualizing (De)Solvation Processes.

Electrolyte engineering is crucial for improving cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) to enhance the performance of lithium-ion batteries, especially at high charging cut-off voltages. However, typical electrolyte modification strategies always focus on the solvation structure in the bulk region, but consistently neglect the dynamic evolution of electrolyte solvation configuration at the cathode-electrolyte interface, which directly influences the CEI construction. Herein, we reveal an anti-synergy effect between Li+-solvation and interfacial electric field by visualizing the dynamic evolution of electrolyte solvation configuration at the cathode-electrolyte interface, which determines the concentration of interfacial solvated-Li+. The Li+ solvation in the charging process facilitates the construction of a concentrated (Li+-solvent/anion-rich) interface and anion-derived CEI, while the repulsive force derived from interfacial electric field induces the formation of a diluted (solvent-rich) interface and solvent-derived CEI. Modifying the electrochemical protocols and electrolyte formulation, we regulate the "inflection voltage" arising from the anti-synergy effect and prolong the lifetime of the concentrated interface, which further improves the functionality of CEI architecture.

Manipulated Fluoro-Ether Derived Nucleophilic Decomposition Products for Mitigating Polarization-Induced Capacity Loss in Li-Rich Layered Cathode.

Electrolyte engineering is a fascinating choice to improve the performance of Li-rich layered oxide cathodes (LRLO) for high-energy lithium-ion batteries. However, many existing electrolyte designs and adjustment principles tend to overlook the unique challenges posed by LRLO, particularly the nucleophilic attack. Here, we introduce an electrolyte modification by locally replacing carbonate solvents in traditional electrolytes with a fluoro-ether. By benefit of the decomposition of fluoro-ether under nucleophilic O-related attacks, which delivers an excellent passivation layer with LiF and polymers, possessing rigidity and flexibility on the LRLO surface. More importantly, the fluoro-ether acts as "sutures", ensuring the integrity and stability of both interfacial and bulk structures, which contributed to suppressing severe polarization and enhancing the cycling capacity retention from 39 % to 78 % after 300 cycles for the 4.8 V-class LRLO. This key electrolyte strategy with comprehensive analysis, provides new insights into addressing nucleophilic challenge for high-energy anionic redox related cathode systems.

Visualizing and Regulating Dynamic Evolution of Interfacial Electrolyte Configuration during De-solvation Process on Lithium-Metal Anode.

Acting as a passive protective layer, solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) plays a crucial role in maintaining the stability of the Li-metal anode. Derived from the reductive decomposition of electrolytes (e.g., anion and solvent), the SEI construction presents as an interfacial process accompanied by the dynamic de-solvation process during Li-metal plating. However, typical electrolyte engineering and related SEI modification strategies always ignore the dynamic evolution of electrolyte configuration at the Li/electrolyte interface, which essentially determines the SEI architecture. Herein, by employing advanced electrochemical in situ FT-IR and MRI technologies, we directly visualize the dynamic variations of solvation environments involving Li+-solvent/anion. Remarkably, a weakened Li+-solvent interaction and anion-lean interfacial electrolyte configuration have been synchronously revealed, which is difficult for the fabrication of anion-derived SEI layer. Moreover, as a simple electrochemical regulation strategy, pulse protocol was introduced to effectively restore the interfacial anion concentration, resulting in an enhanced LiF-rich SEI layer and improved Li-metal plating/stripping reversibility.

Non-Flammable Electrolyte Enables High-Voltage and Wide-Temperature Lithium-Ion Batteries with Fast Charging.

Electrolyte design has become ever more important to enhance the performance of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the flammability issue and high reactivity of the conventional electrolytes remain a major problem, especially when the LIBs are operated at high voltage and extreme temperatures. Herein, we design a novel non-flammable fluorinated ester electrolyte that enables high cycling stability in wide-temperature variations (e.g., -50 °C-60 °C) and superior power capability (fast charge rates up to 5.0 C) for the graphite||LiNi0.8 Co0.1 Mn0.1 O2 (NCM811) battery at high voltage (i.e., >4.3 V vs. Li/Li+ ). Moreover, this work sheds new light on the dynamic evolution and interaction among the Li+ , solvent, and anion at the molecular level. By elucidating the fundamental relationship between the Li+ solvation structure and electrochemical performance, we can facilitate the development of high-safety and high-energy-density batteries operating in harsh conditions.

A Sustainable NH4 + Ion Battery by Electrolyte Engineering.

Aqueous ammonium ion battery is a promising sustainable energy storage system. However, the side reactions originating from electrolytes (the water decomposition and host material dissolution) preclude its practical applications. Unlike the metal-based aqueous batteries, the idea of "ultrahigh concentrated electrolyte" is not feasible due to the strong hydrolysis of ammonium ions. Therefore, we propose an effective and sustainable strategy for the water hydrogen bond network modulation by adding sucrose into the electrolytes. The sucrose can form sucrose-water hydrogen bond networks to break the continuous water hydrogen bond network, thereby inhibiting water decomposition significantly. Moreover, the weak hydrogen bond interaction between ammonium and sucrose facilitates rapid ion migration, leading to an improved ionic conductivity. This work presents a new electrolyte modulating strategy for the practical application of aqueous ammonium ion batteries.

A Designed Durable Electrolyte for High-Voltage Lithium-Ion Batteries and Mechanism Analysis.

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) dominate the energy market, from electronic devices to electric vehicles, but pursuing greater energy density remains challenging owing to the limited electrode capacity. Although increasing the cut-off voltage of LIBs (>4.4 V vs. Li/Li+ ) can enhance the energy density, the aggravated electrolyte decomposition always leads to a severe capacity fading and/or expiry of the battery. Herein, a new durable electrolyte is reported for high-voltage LIBs. The designed electrolyte is composed of mixed linear alkyl carbonate solvent with certain cyclic carbonate additives, in which use of the ethylene carbonate (EC) co-solvent was successfully avoided to suppress the electrolyte decomposition. As a result, an extremely high cycling stability, rate capability, and high-temperature storage performance were demonstrated in the case of a graphite|LiNi0.6 Co0.2 Mn0.2 O2 (NCM622) battery at 4.45 V when this electrolyte was used. The good compatibility of the electrolyte with the graphite anode and the mitigated structural degradation of the NCM622 cathode are responsible for the high performance at high potentials above 4.4 V. This work presents a promising application of high-voltage electrolytes for pursuing high energy LIBs and provides a straightforward guide to study the electrodes/electrolyte interface for higher stability.

Electrolyte Solvation Engineering Stabilizing Anode-Free Sodium Metal Battery With 4.0 V-Class Layered Oxide Cathode.

Anode-free sodium metal batteries (AFSMBs) are regarded as the "ceiling" for current sodium-based batteries. However, their practical application is hindered by the unstable electrolyte and interfacial chemistry at the high-voltage cathode and anode-free side, especially under extreme temperature conditions. Here, an advanced electrolyte design strategy based on electrolyte solvation engineering is presented, which shapes a weakly solvating anion-stabilized (WSAS) electrolyte by balancing the interaction between the Na+-solvent and Na+-anion. The special interaction constructs rich contact ion pairs (CIPs) /aggregates (AGGs) clusters at the electrode/electrolyte interface during the dynamic solvation process which facilitates the formation of a uniform and stable interfacial layer, enabling highly stable cycling of 4.0 V-class layered oxide cathode from -40 °C to 60 °C and excellent reversibility of Na plating/stripping with an ultrahigh average CE of 99.89%. Ultimately, industrial multi-layer anode-free pouch cells using the WSAS electrolyte achieve 80% capacity remaining after 50 cycles and even deliver 74.3% capacity at -30 °C. This work takes a pivotal step for the further development of high-energy-density Na batteries.

Achieving High-Capacity Cathode Presodiation Agent Via Triggering Anionic Oxidation Activity in Sodium Oxide.

Compensating for the irreversible loss of limited active sodium (Na) is crucial for enhancing the energy density of practical sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) full-cell, especially when employing hard carbon anode with initially lower coulombic efficiency. Introducing sacrificial cathode presodiation agents, particularly those that own potential anionic oxidation activity with a high theoretical capacity, can provide additional sodium sources for compensating Na loss. Herein, Ni atoms are precisely implanted at the Na sites within Na2O framework, obtaining a (Na0.89Ni0.05□0.06)2O (Ni-Na2O) presodiation agent. The synergistic interaction between Na vacancies and Ni catalyst effectively tunes the band structure, forming moderate Ni-O covalent bonds, activating the oxidation activity of oxygen anion, reducing the decomposition overpotential to 2.8 V (vs Na/Na+), and achieving a high presodiation capacity of 710 mAh/g≈Na2O (Na2O decomposition rate >80%). Incorporating currently-modified presodiation agent with Na3V2(PO4)3 and Na2/3Ni2/3Mn1/3O2 cathodes, the energy density of corresponding Na-ion full-cells presents an essential improvement of 23.9% and 19.3%, respectively. Further, not limited to Ni-Na2O, the structure-function relationship between the anionic oxidation mechanism and electrode-electrolyte interface fabrication is revealed as a paradigm for the development of sacrificial cathode presodiation agent.

Electrolyte Solvation Structure Design for Sodium Ion Batteries.

Sodium ion batteries (SIBs) are considered the most promising battery technology in the post-lithium era due to the abundant sodium reserves. In the past two decades, exploring new electrolytes for SIBs has generally relied on the "solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)" theory to optimize the electrolyte components. However, many observed phenomena cannot be fully explained by the SEI theory. Therefore, electrolyte solvation structure and electrode-electrolyte interface behavior have recently received tremendous research interest to explain the improved performance. Considering there is currently no review paper focusing on the solvation structure of electrolytes in SIBs, a systematic survey on SIBs is provided, in which the specific solvation structure design guidelines and their consequent impact on the electrochemical performance are elucidated. The key driving force of solvation structure formation, and the recent advances in adjusting SIB solvation structures are discussed in detail. It is believed that this review can provide new insights into the electrolyte optimization strategies of high-performance SIBs and even other emerging battery systems.

Switching Electrolyte Interfacial Model to Engineer Solid Electrolyte Interface for Fast Charging and Wide-Temperature Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Engineering the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) that forms on the electrode is crucial for achieving high performance in metal-ion batteries. However, the mechanism of SEI formation resulting from electrolyte decomposition is not fully understood at the molecular scale. Herein, a new strategy of switching electrolyte to tune SEI properties is presented, by which a unique and thinner SEI can be pre-formed on the graphite electrode first in an ether-based electrolyte, and then the as-designed graphite electrode can demonstrate extremely high-rate capabilities in a carbonate-based electrolyte, enabling the design of fast-charging and wide-temperature lithium-ion batteries (e.g., graphite | LiNi0.6 Co0.2 Mn0.2 O2 (NCM622)). A molecular interfacial model involving the conformations and electrochemical stabilities of the Li+ -solvent-anion complex is presented to elucidate the differences in SEI formation between ether-based and carbonate-based electrolytes, then interpreting the reason for the obtained higher rate performances. This innovative concept combines the advantages of different electrolytes into one battery system. It is believed that the switching strategy and understanding of the SEI formation mechanism opens a new avenue to design SEI, which is universal for pursuing more versatile battery systems with greater stability.

Interfacial Model Deciphering High-Voltage Electrolytes for High Energy Density, High Safety, and Fast-Charging Lithium-Ion Batteries.

High-voltage lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) enabled by high-voltage electrolytes can effectively boost energy density and power density, which are critical requirements to achieve long travel distances, fast-charging, and reliable safety performance for electric vehicles. However, operating these batteries beyond the typical conditions of LIBs (4.3 V vs Li/Li+ ) leads to severe electrolyte decomposition, while interfacial side reactions remain elusive. These critical issues have become a bottleneck for developing electrolytes for applications in extreme conditions. Herein, an additive-free electrolyte is presented that affords high stability at high voltage (4.5 V vs Li/Li+ ), lithium-dendrite-free features upon fast-charging operations (e.g., 162 mAh g-1 at 3 C), and superior long-term battery performance at low temperature. More importantly, a new solvation structure-related interfacial model is presented, incorporating molecular-scale interactions between the lithium-ion, anion, and solvents at the electrolyte-electrode interfaces to help interpret battery performance. This report is a pioneering study that explores the dynamic mutual-interaction interfacial behaviors on the lithium layered oxide cathode and graphite anode simultaneously in the battery. This interfacial model enables new insights into electrode performances that differ from the known solid electrolyte interphase approach to be revealed, and sets new guidelines for the design of versatile electrolytes for metal-ion batteries.