The Relation between Residential Mobility and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems in Adolescence: The Role of Subjective Moving Experience, Gender, and Friendship Quality.

Adolescent residential mobility can be a stressful life event, potentially aggravating internalizing or externalizing problems. However, the longitudinal effects of residential mobility are understudied and may be context-dependent. This study investigates the longitudinal associations between adolescent residential mobility and internalizing and externalizing problems. Additionally, this study examines for whom residential moves are most detrimental by including subjective moving experience, gender, and friendship quality before the move as moderators. Longitudinal data from 2,029 adolescents (51% female) from the TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS) were used (Mage [SD] at T1 = 11.1 [0.55], T2 = 13.6 [0.52], and T3 = 16.3 [0.70]). Results from stepwise multi-level random-effect models showed that adolescents who experienced an unpleasant move remained stable in internalizing problems, while others decreased over time. Adolescents who moved increased stronger in externalizing problems than adolescents who did not move, independent of whether they experienced the move as unpleasant. Gender and friendship quality before the move did not moderate the relation between residential mobility and internalizing or externalizing problem development. These results emphasize that residential moves in adolescence, especially when experienced as unpleasant, can have long-lasting negative effects on adolescent development.

Life Satisfaction Development in the Transition to Adulthood: Differences by Gender and Immigrant Background.

Life satisfaction is crucial for healthy development into adulthood. However, it is yet largely unknown how life satisfaction develops in the transition to adulthood. This study examined life satisfaction development in this transition and paid special attention to differences between boys, girls, children of immigrants, and nonimmigrants. Unique longitudinal data of seven waves (2010-2018) of the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Survey Germany were used. Respondents (N = 3757, 54% girls, 78% nonimmigrants, Mage weighted = 14.6, SD = 0.6 at wave 1) were followed between ages 14 and 23 and multi-level random effect models were applied. Life satisfaction developed in a nonlinear way in the transition to adulthood (M-shape), with overall decreases between age 17 and 18 and between age 20 and 23. Girls reported lower life satisfaction levels in adolescence and more unstable trajectories than boys, where girls with immigrant backgrounds represented the least advantageous life satisfaction trajectory. Differences in life satisfaction between groups decreased from age 19 onwards.

Breast cancer by migrant background in Belgium: Lower risk, but worse survival in women of non-European origin.

Foreign and native populations differ in terms of breast cancer outcomes. Studies rarely distinguish between premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer, although the risk profile is different; nor between migrants of the first and second generation (FG and SG), which is crucial to examine genetic and environmental influences on breast cancer. This research fills these gaps by investigating patterns in breast cancer incidence and survival in different migrant groups by menopausal and migrant generational status, taking various risk factors into account. To this end, individually linked data from the 2001 census, the Belgian Cancer Registry and the Crossroads Bank for Social Security are used. Age-standardised incidence rates and incidence rate ratios are calculated by migrant background group, stratified according to ages 30-50 (premenopausal) and 50-70 (postmenopausal). Incidence rate ratios are examined with and without taking reproductive factors and socioeconomic position (SEP) into account. Relative survival percentages and relative excess risks of dying among premenopausal and postmenopausal patients are computed with and without controlling for the stage at diagnosis and SEP. Premenopausal breast cancer is further examined by migrant generational status. Breast cancer incidence is lower among non-European migrants compared to Belgians. Keeping SEP and known risk factors constant reduces much, but not all of the observed discrepancies. A risk convergence between SG migrants and Belgians for the development of premenopausal breast cancer is observed. Premenopausal breast cancer survival is worse among Moroccan patients due to a higher stage at diagnosis. This disadvantage is concentrated in the FG.

[Healthy life expectancy of older migrants and non-migrants in three European countries over time]. / Gezonde levensverwachting op oudere leeftijd: een vergelijking van migranten en niet-migranten in drie Europese landen over tijd.

We analysed differences in healthy life expectancy at age 50 (HLE50) between migrants and non-migrants in Belgium, the Netherlands, and England and Wales, and their trends over time between 2001 and 2011 in the latter two countries. Population, mortality and health data were derived from registers, census or surveys. HLE50 was calculated for non-migrants, western and non-western migrants by sex. We applied decomposition techniques to determine whether differences in HLE50 between origin groups and changes in HLE50 over time were attributable to either differences in mortality or health. The results show that in all three countries and among both sexes, older migrants, in particular those from non-western origin, could expect to live fewer years in good health than older non-migrants, mainly because of differences in self-rated health. Differences in HLE50 between migrants and non-migrants diminished over time in the Netherlands, but they increased in England and Wales. Improvements in HLE50 over time were mainly attributable to mortality decline. Interventions aimed at reducing the health and mortality inequalities between older migrants and non-migrants should focus on prevention, and target especially non-western migrants.

Regional Diffusion of Divorce in Turkey.

While demographic change has been well documented for many Western countries, much less is known about demographic transitions in other countries, including Turkey. Demographic change in European societies can be characterized by, amongst others, increased prevalence of divorce. Although it is often argued that life courses in Turkey follow a more traditional path, little is known on determinants and patterns of divorce, despite the major socioeconomic changes Turkey has undergone over the past decades. We study the levels of divorce of women in Turkey from 1973 to 2008 to explain patterns of divorce, looking at the role of individual characteristics and the regional context. We use the Demographic Health Surveys (2003/2008), complemented with regional data on divorce, urbanization, and GDP per capita. Applying a multilevel approach, distinguishing 12 regions, we hypothesize that regions where divorce is already more prevalent, more urbanized regions, and wealthier regions in terms of GDP per capita will increase the probability of divorce. Our analyses show that levels of divorce increased over the past decades but huge regional variation remains. Sociocultural and socioeconomic factors explain this trend, and in particular urbanization and GDP per capita are key determinants for divorce.

Ethnic and Socioeconomic Segregation in Belgium: A Multiscalar Approach Using Individualised Neighbourhoods.

Segregation may have profound effects when it is paired with an accumulation of inequalities. This is namely the case when ethnic and socioeconomic segregation overlap. Few studies in Europe have, however, addressed the relationship between ethnic and socioeconomic segregation in a comprehensive manner. This paper first aims at investigating the interrelation between ethnic and socioeconomic segregation in Belgium. Second it looks into the role of scale in the relationship between ethnic and socioeconomic segregation. The analyses are based on the newly available geocoded data from the 2011 Belgian census. These data were used to construct individualised neighbourhoods at nine scales with a nearest-neighbours approach for the urban agglomerations of Brussels, Antwerp, and Liege. Ethnic and socioeconomic indicators calculated for these individualised neighbourhoods were then inputted in independent factor analyses for each agglomeration. The results reveal remarkably similar segregation patterns in the three cities. Our analyses give way for three main conclusions: there is an undeniable process of spatial isolation of deprived migrants in Belgium's inner cities; despite the central location of neighbourhoods with high concentration of migrants and poverty, the scope of isolation is considerably high, both in extension and in population density; and macro/national factors such as housing policies and territorial processes seem to shape the segregation patterns in Belgian cities.

The Measurement of Ethnic Segregation in the Netherlands: Differences Between Administrative and Individualized Neighbourhoods.

The debate on residential segregation often focuses on the concentration of migrant groups in specific neighbourhoods and its presumed effects on, e.g. personal life chances and social inclusion. However, cross-regional and international comparisons of segregation are hampered by differences in the size and delineation of the spatial units that are used for its measurement: the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. This paper therefore measures segregation for scalable 'individualized neighbourhoods', defined by a predefined number of closest neighbours instead of by administrative or statistical boundaries. This approach allows for measuring segregation levels and patterns across different spatial scales, ranging from the micro-scale (50 neighbours) to larger spatial areas (51,200 neighbours). Using population register data from the Netherlands, we study the segregation of four different migrant origin groups across individualized neighbourhoods at eleven spatial scales. Outcomes are compared to those found using administrative neighbourhoods. We are especially interested in how levels and patterns of segregation change with an increase in scale level. Our findings indicate that segregation levels and patterns are different across various spatial scales, and the most relevant spatial scale is also group-specific. Measuring segregation while using scalable individualized neighbourhoods seems an appropriate way to deal with both the multiscalar nature of segregation and the large within-district variety associated with it.

Employment After Parenthood: Women of Migrant Origin and Natives Compared.

Motherhood negatively affects female employment in majority populations across Europe. Although employment levels are particularly low among women of migrant origin, little is known about the motherhood-employment link in migrant populations. This paper investigates whether family formation differentially affects the labour market position of migrant women and their descendants compared to natives. Using longitudinal microdata from the Belgian social security registers, 12,167 women are followed from 12 months before until 48 months after the birth of their first child for the period 1999-2010. Levels of activity (versus inactivity), employment (versus unemployment) and full-time employment (versus part-time employment) are compared between natives and first- and second-generation women of Southern European, Eastern European, Turkish and Moroccan origin. We find that activity and employment levels decrease to a larger extent following the transition to parenthood among women of migrant origin than among natives. With respect to activity levels, differences between second-generation women and natives are largely explained by socio-demographic and pre-birth job characteristics, while differences between first-generation women and natives are not, suggesting that other factors such as tied migration patterns determine labour market attachment among first-generation mothers. With respect to employment levels, unemployment is increasing more among women of migrant origin of both generations than among natives, also when controlling for background characteristics, which signals differential access to stable job positions as well as to family policies. In sum, the results draw attention to the challenge that parenthood creates for mothers of migrant origin in terms of retaining and gaining employment, but also to the role of labour market entry and early career positions.

Partner Choice and the Transition to Parenthood for Second-Generation Women of Turkish and Moroccan Origin in Belgium.

Studies on fertility among second-generation migrant women across Europe have mainly treated the second generation as a rather homogenous group, not linking and distinguishing fertility patterns by type of partner. This study investigates how and to what extent the origin and generation of the partner (endogamous or exogamous as well as diversity in endogamy) of Turkish and Moroccan second-generation women in Belgium is related to first-birth rates. We distinguish three types of partnerships: those in an endogamous union with a first-generation partner, those in an endogamous union with a second-generation partner, and those in an exogenous union where the partner is of native Belgian origin. We use linked Census-Register data for the period 2001-2006. Applying event history models, our findings reveal clear differences between the endogamous and exogamous unions with respect to the timing of first births. Second-generation women of both origin groups have the lowest parenthood rates when the partner is of native Belgian origin. However, no variation is found within endogamous unions. For endogamous unions with a first-generation partner, the parenthood rates are approximately the same (and not higher, as was expected) compared to when the partner is also of second generation.

A Comparative Study of Segregation Patterns in Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden: Neighbourhood Concentration and Representation of Non-European Migrants.

In this paper, we use geo-coded, individual-level register data on four European countries to compute comparative measures of segregation that are independent of existing geographical sub-divisions. The focus is on non-European migrants, for whom aggregates of egocentric neighbourhoods (with different population counts) are used to assess small-scale, medium-scale, and large-scale segregation patterns. At the smallest scale level, corresponding to neighbourhoods with 200 persons, patterns of over- and under-representation are strikingly similar. At larger-scale levels, Belgium stands out as having relatively strong over- and under-representation. More than 55% of the Belgian population lives in large-scale neighbourhoods with moderate under- or over-representation of non-European migrants. In the other countries, the corresponding figures are between 30 and 40%. Possible explanations for the variation across countries are differences in housing policies and refugee placement policies. Sweden has the largest and Denmark the smallest non-European migrant population, in relative terms. Thus, in both migrant-dense and native-born-dense areas, Swedish neighbourhoods have a higher concentration and Denmark a lower concentration of non-European migrants than the other countries. For large-scale, migrant-dense neighbourhoods, however, levels of concentration are similar in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Sweden. Thus, to the extent that such concentrations contribute to spatial inequalities, these countries are facing similar policy challenges.

Differences in labour force participation by motherhood status among second-generation Turkish and majority women across Europe.

Second-generation Turkish immigrants make up an increasingly important segment of European labour markets. These young adults are entering the prime working ages and forming families. However, we have only a limited understanding of the relationship between labour force participation and parenthood among second-generation Turkish women. Using unique data from the Integration of the European Second Generation survey (2007/08), we compared the labour force participation of second-generation Turkish women with their majority-group counterparts by motherhood status in four countries. We found evidence that motherhood gaps, with respect to labour force participation, were similar for majority and second-generation Turkish women in Germany and in Sweden; however, there may be larger gaps for second-generation mothers than for majority women in the Netherlands and France. Cross-national findings were consistent with the view that national normative and social policy contexts are relevant for the labour force participation of all women, regardless of migrant background.

Cohort Succession in the Timing of Marriage Among the Children of Turkish and Moroccan Immigrants.

In this paper, we introduce cohort succession in the study of marriage behaviour among the children of immigrants. Research among majority populations in developed countries has shown an overall increase in age at first marriage. Yet whether a similar change is occurring across successive cohorts of children of immigrants is unknown but relevant given the growing shares of children of immigrants in developed countries. Using full population register data from the Netherlands, we test the theoretical assumptions of cohort succession with event history models for the timing of first marriage across entire Turkish and Moroccan second-generation birth cohorts. In line with the expectations based on diffusion theories, we find clear evidence that younger birth cohorts postpone marriage. Moreover, the marriage timing of especially the Turkish second generation and Dutch majority population converges across birth cohorts. Our findings call for a more differentiated study of the children of immigrants acknowledging diffusion of new demographic behaviour among these groups.

Economic Precariousness and the Transition to Parenthood: A Dynamic and Multidimensional Approach.

Economic precariousness has taken on a central role in explanations of the postponement of childbearing in developed societies. However, most studies conceptualize and operationalize precariousness as being static and one-dimensional, which provides only a partial perspective on the links between precariousness and fertility. In this paper, we study precariousness as a dynamic and multidimensional concept, distinguishing between past and current precariousness as well as between precariousness relating to income and to employment. Analyses are based on Dutch full-population register data. We select all inhabitants of the Netherlands who left education in 2006 and follow them until 2018. Event history analyses show that current and past income and employment precariousness all have independent negative effects on the first birth rate for men. Current and past employment precariousness and past income precariousness also reduce the first birth rate for women, but current income precariousness increases women's probability of first conception. When precariousness is both persistent and multidimensional, it is associated with a threefold decrease in the monthly probability of conceiving a first child for men and almost a halving of the probability for women. Our analyses show the need for going beyond static and one-dimensional analyses in order to understand how economic precariousness may affect fertility behaviour. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10680-022-09617-4.

Childhood residential mobility and health outcomes: A meta-analysis.

This study assesses the association between childhood residential mobility and health-related outcomes by way of a meta-analysis of studies published between 1989 and 2020. The sample includes 844 effect sizes from 64 unique studies. The results point to a negative association (small to medium) between childhood mobility and health. This association is contingent upon the type of health outcome studied, age at outcome assessment, age at moving, and frequency of moves. The major confounders of this association are parental SES, parental marital status, ethnicity, and co-occurring childhood adversities. The implications for future research are discussed.

Neighbourhood migrant composition and tobacco-related cancer mortality: A census-linked study among five origin groups in urban Belgium.

We studied the role of 'ethnic density' in the neighbourhood for tobacco-related cancer mortality among five migrant origin groups in urban Belgium. Using full population linked census data, multilevel Poisson models were applied to model effects of three linear and categorical indicators of same-origin presence for each origin group, and to test effect mediation by migrant generation and educational level. We first of all found that increased same migrant-origin presence in the neighbourhood had protective effects on tobacco-related cancer mortality for men in most groups. Second, only Turkish men had a mortality disadvantage when Turkish concentration was higher. Third, effects were not detected across all indicators of same-origin presence, nor among most groups of women. Finally, for several groups, neighbourhood effects were mediated by generational status and educational level.

Intergenerational support among migrant families in Europe.

Intergenerational support is important throughout the individual life course and a major mechanism of cultural continuity. In this study, we analyse support between older parents and their adult children among international migrant and non-migrant populations in North, Centre and Southern Europe. Data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe are used to compare upward and downward practical support, grandparenting, and frequency of contact among 62,213 parent-child dyads. Findings indicate limited differences in support between migrants and non-migrants as well as between migrants of various origins. However, persistent differences in intergenerational support across Europe along a north-south gradient are found irrespective of migrant status.

Ideal ages for family formation among immigrants in Europe.

This paper investigates ideal ages for marriage and parenthood among immigrants from over 160 countries origins living in 25 European countries. Ideals regarding the timing of family formation are indicative of how individuals perceive the family life course and provide insight into family-life aspirations and the meaning attached to these transitions. Using data from the European Social Survey (Round 3, 2006; N=6330) and a cross-classified multilevel modeling approach, we investigate associations between the influences of the dominant family formation timing patterns in countries of origin and settlement, individual-level characteristics, and ideal ages. We make innovative use of a standard demographic measure, the singulate mean age of marriage, to measure family formation patterns. Results suggest that residential context influences are associated with the timing ideals of all migrants, but origin influences seem to be associated with the ideals of only the most recent migrants.

Partner Choice Patterns Among the Descendants of Turkish Immigrants in Europe.

We examine the partner choice patterns of second-generation Turks in 13 European cities in seven countries. We not only compare intermarriage versus endogamous marriage, but also explicitly include the choice of a second-generation partner of the same origin and of a partner of other migrant origin as important alternatives. In Europe, populations are made up increasingly of migrants and their descendants resulting in new alternative partner options not open before. Findings suggest that second-generation Turks who choose a second-generation partner seem to be located between the partner choice of a first-generation and native partner in terms of family values and contact to non-coethnic peers. The choice of a partner of other migrant origin hardly differs in these characteristics from the choice of a native partner. Context variables such as group size and type of integration policies seem to play a role for the likelihood of having a first-generation versus a second-generation partner of Turkish origin but not for the likelihood of exogamous partner choice. A second-generation partner is the most popular choice in Germany but represents a minor option in the other countries. Furthermore, a partner of other migrant origin is more common among men but is in some countries more popular than a native partner among Turkish second-generation men and women.

Living arrangements of migrant and Dutch young adults: the family influence disentangled.

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the family of origin on whether migrant and Dutch young adults live in the parental home. Using a sample of 1,678 young adults aged between 15 and 30 years from 847 families with five different ethnic backgrounds, we identified patterns of co-residence and investigated how and to what extent the likelihood of co-residence was influenced by migrant background, family ties, and the socio-economic characteristics of the family. The results show that of the four migrant groups, only Moroccan young adults are more likely than those of Dutch origin to live with their parents. For both migrant and Dutch young adults, family ties and the socio-economic characteristics of the family rather than an ethnic factor are the major influences on living arrangements.