Nightly sleep duration predicts grade point average in the first year of college.

Academic achievement in the first year of college is critical for setting students on a pathway toward long-term academic and life success, yet little is known about the factors that shape early college academic achievement. Given the important role sleep plays in learning and memory, here we extend this work to evaluate whether nightly sleep duration predicts change in end-of-semester grade point average (GPA). First-year college students from three independent universities provided sleep actigraphy for a month early in their winter/spring academic term across five studies. Findings showed that greater early-term total nightly sleep duration predicted higher end-of-term GPA, an effect that persisted even after controlling for previous-term GPA and daytime sleep. Specifically, every additional hour of average nightly sleep duration early in the semester was associated with an 0.07 increase in end-of-term GPA. Sensitivity analyses using sleep thresholds also indicated that sleeping less than 6 h each night was a period where sleep shifted from helpful to harmful for end-of-term GPA, relative to previous-term GPA. Notably, predictive relationships with GPA were specific to total nightly sleep duration, and not other markers of sleep, such as the midpoint of a student's nightly sleep window or bedtime timing variability. These findings across five studies establish nightly sleep duration as an important factor in academic success and highlight the potential value of testing early academic term total sleep time interventions during the formative first year of college.

Achievement Goals: A Social Influence Cycle.

Achievement goals have been defined as the purpose of competence-relevant behavior. In this respect they connect one of the basic human needs, i.e., competence, to one of society's core values, i.e., achievement. We propose to look at achievement goals through the lens of social influence. We review both the influence that cultural, structural, and contextual factors have on achievement goal endorsement and the influence that endorsing achievement goals allows people to have within their social space. The review allows us to propose a circular model of the influence on and of achievement goals: The culture, social structures, and contexts that are typical of a certain society shape the specific environments in which individuals develop their achievement goals, which in turn has an influence on the expression and circulation of these achievement goals into society, in a social influence cycle.

Social and genetic associations with educational performance in a Scandinavian welfare state.

Recent research has suggested that across Western developed societies, the influence of genetics on educational outcomes is relatively constant. However, the degree to which family environment matters varies, such that countries with high levels of intergenerational mobility have weaker associations of family background. Research in this vein has relied on twin-based estimates, which involve variance decomposition, so direct assessment of the association of genes and environments is not possible. In the present study, we approach the question by directly measuring the impact of child genotype, parental genetic nurture, and parental realized education on educational achievement in primary and secondary school. We deploy data from a social democratic context (Norway) and contrast our findings with those derived from more liberal welfare state contexts. Results point to genetics only confounding the relationship between parent status and offspring achievement to a small degree. Genetic nurture associations are similar to those in other societies. We find no, or very small, gene-environment interactions and parent-child genotype interactions with respect to test scores. In sum, in a Scandinavian welfare state context, both genetic and environmental associations are of similar magnitude as in societies with less-robust efforts to mitigate the influence of family background.

Disentangling the individual and contextual effects of math anxiety: A global perspective.

Math anxiety is a common affective disorder in students that is characterized by intrusive thoughts that disrupt critical cognitive resources required for math problem-solving. Consistent associations between math anxiety and math achievement have been observed across countries and age groups, placing math anxiety among other important correlates of math achievement, such as socioeconomic status and magnitude representation ability. However, studies examining math anxiety's relation to achievement have largely focused on the effect of students' own math anxiety (individual effect), while little is known regarding the effect of math anxiety in students' educational context (contextual effect). Using three international studies of achievement (n = 1,175,515), we estimated both the individual and contextual effects of math anxiety across the globe. Results suggest that while there are consistent individual effects in virtually all countries examined, the contextual effects are varied, with only approximately half of the countries exhibiting a contextual effect. Additionally, we reveal that teacher confidence in teaching math is associated with a reduction of the individual effect, and country's level of uncertainty avoidance is related to a lessening of the contextual effect. Finally, we uncovered multiple predictors of math anxiety; notably, student perception of teacher competence was negative related with math anxiety, and parental homework involvement was positively related with math anxiety. Taken together, these results suggest that there are significant between-country differences in how math anxiety may be related with math achievement and suggest that education and cultural contexts as important considerations in understanding math anxiety's effects on achievement.

Rewarding cognitive effort increases the intrinsic value of mental labor.

Current models of mental effort in psychology, behavioral economics, and cognitive neuroscience typically suggest that exerting cognitive effort is aversive, and people avoid it whenever possible. The aim of this research was to challenge this view and show that people can learn to value and seek effort intrinsically. Our experiments tested the hypothesis that effort-contingent reward in a working-memory task will induce a preference for more demanding math tasks in a transfer phase, even though participants were aware that they would no longer receive any reward for task performance. In laboratory Experiment 1 (n = 121), we made reward directly contingent on mobilized cognitive effort as assessed via cardiovascular measures (ß-adrenergic sympathetic activity) during the training task. Experiments 2a to 2e (n = 1,457) were conducted online to examine whether the effects of effort-contingent reward on subsequent demand seeking replicate and generalize to community samples. Taken together, the studies yielded reliable evidence that effort-contingent reward increased participants' demand seeking and preference for the exertion of cognitive effort on the transfer task. Our findings provide evidence that people can learn to assign positive value to mental effort. The results challenge currently dominant theories of mental effort and provide evidence and an explanation for the positive effects of environments appreciating effort and individual growth on people's evaluation of effort and their willingness to mobilize effort and approach challenging tasks.

Robust genetic nurture effects on education: A systematic review and meta-analysis based on 38,654 families across 8 cohorts.

Similarities between parents and offspring arise from nature and nurture. Beyond this simple dichotomy, recent genomic studies have uncovered "genetic nurture" effects, whereby parental genotypes influence offspring outcomes via environmental pathways rather than genetic transmission. Such genetic nurture effects also need to be accounted for to accurately estimate "direct" genetic effects (i.e., genetic effects on a trait originating in the offspring). Empirical studies have indicated that genetic nurture effects are particularly relevant to the intergenerational transmission of risk for child educational outcomes, which are, in turn, associated with major psychological and health milestones throughout the life course. These findings have yet to be systematically appraised across contexts. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to quantify genetic nurture effects on educational outcomes. A total of 12 studies comprising 38,654 distinct parent(s)-offspring pairs or trios from 8 cohorts reported 22 estimates of genetic nurture effects. Genetic nurture effects on offspring's educational outcomes (ßgenetic nurture = 0.08, 95% CI [0.07, 0.09]) were smaller than direct genetic effects (ßdirect genetic = 0.17, 95% CI [0.13, 0.20]). Findings were largely consistent across studies. Genetic nurture effects originating from mothers and fathers were of similar magnitude, highlighting the need for a greater inclusion of fathers in educational research. Genetic nurture effects were largely explained by observed parental education and socioeconomic status, pointing to their role in environmental pathways shaping child educational outcomes. Findings provide consistent evidence that environmentally mediated parental genetic influences contribute to the intergenerational transmission of educational outcomes, in addition to effects due to genetic transmission.

Motivated with joy or anxiety: Does approach-avoidance goal framing elicit differential reward-network activation in the brain?

Psychological research on human motivation repeatedly observed that approach goals (i.e., goals to attain success) increase task enjoyment and intrinsic motivation more strongly than avoidance goals (i.e., goals to avoid failure). The present study sought to address how the reward network in the brain-including the striatum and ventromedial prefrontal cortex-is involved when individuals engage in the same task with a focus on approach or avoidance goals. Participants reported stronger positive emotions when they focused on approach goals, but stronger anxiety and disappointment when they focused on avoidance goals. The fMRI analyses revealed that the reward network in the brain showed similar levels of activity to cues predictive of approach and avoidance goals. In contrast, the two goal states were associated with different patterns of activity in the visual cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum during success and failure outcomes. Representation similarity analysis further revealed shared and different representations within the striatum and vmPFC between the approach and avoidance goal states, suggesting both the similarity and uniqueness of the mechanisms behind the two goal states. In addition, the distinct patterns of activation in the striatum were associated with distinct subjective experiences participants reported between the approach and the avoidance conditions. These results suggest the importance of examining the pattern of striatal activity in understanding the mechanisms behind different motivational states in humans.

The Relationship of Preterm and Small for Gestational Age with Child Cognition During School-Age Years.

BACKGROUND: Children born preterm and/or small for gestational age (SGA) are at increased risk of poor cognitive outcomes, particularly in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine the cognitive and academic deficits during the school-age years in children born preterm or SGA compared with those in children born term adequate for gestational age (AGA) in rural Vietnam. METHODS: Children born to women in a preconception micronutrient supplementation trial in Vietnam were classified into 3 groups: preterm AGA (n =138), term SGA (n =169), and term AGA (n = 1134). Cognitive abilities were assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, measuring 4 domains [verbal comprehension index (VCI), perceptual reasoning index (PRI), working memory index (WMI), and processing speed index (PSI) scores] and full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) at 6-7 and 10-11 y. Academic achievement was assessed with mathematic and language tests. Analysis of variance and multiple regression models were used to analyze differences in cognitive function and academic achievement at 6-7 and 10-11 y by birth phenotypes. RESULTS: Compared with term AGA children, those born SGA had lower cognitive scores at both 6-7 y (VCI, -2.3; PRI, -3.7; PSI -2.1; and FSIQ, -2.9) and 10-11 y (VCI, -3.7; PRI, -3.5; WMI, -2.7; PSI, -1.9; and FSIQ, -3.9). Children born SGA also had poorer academic achievement with lower language (5.3) and mathematic (2.5) scores. Adjustments for maternal factors and home environment attenuated the associations, but the differences in VCI, PRI, FSIQ, and language at 10-11 y remained significant. There were no differences in cognitive function and academic achievement between children born preterm and AGA. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the enduring association of birth phenotype on cognitive functioning and academic achievement during the school years, despite adjustments for maternal education and family environment. Further research is needed to implement effective interventions to improve birth outcomes and optimize child health and development in LMICs. The trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01665378 (URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01665378).

The Detection of Environmental Influences on Academic Achievement Appears to Depend on the Analytic Approach.

One long-standing analytic approach in adoption studies is to examine correlations between features of adoptive homes and outcomes of adopted children (hereafter termed 'measured environment correlations') to illuminate environmental influences on those associations. Although results from such studies have almost uniformly suggested modest environmental influences on adopted children's academic achievement, other work has indicated that adopted children's achievement is routinely higher than that of their reared-apart family members, often substantially so. We sought to understand this discrepancy. We examined academic achievement and literacy-promotive features of the home in 424 yoked adoptive/biological families participating in the Early Growth and Development Study (EGDS; i.e., adopted children, adoptive mothers, birth mothers, and biological siblings of the adopted children remaining in the birth homes) using an exhaustive modeling approach. Results indicated that, as anticipated, adopted children scored up to a full standard deviation higher on standardized achievement tests relative to their birth mothers and reared-apart biological siblings. Moreover, these achievement differences were associated with differences in the literacy-promotive features of the adoptive and birth family homes, despite minimal measured environment correlations within adoptive families. A subsequent simulation study highlighted noise in measured environmental variables as an explanation for the decreased utility of measured environment correlations. We conclude that the field's heavy focus on measured environment correlations within adoptive families may have obscured detection of specific environmental effects on youth outcomes, and that future adoption studies should supplement their measured environment analyses with mean differences between reared-apart relatives.

Impacts of preparation technologies on biological activities of edible mushroom polysaccharides - novel insights for personalized nutrition achievement.

Edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) as a natural macromolecular carbohydrate have a very complex structure and composition. EMPs are considered ideal candidates for developing healthy products and functional foods and have received significant research attention due to their unique physiological activities such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor/cancer, gut microbiota regulation, metabolism improvement, and nervous system protection. The structure and monosaccharide composition of edible mushroom polysaccharides have an unknown relationship with their functional activity, which has not been widely studied. Therefore, we summarized the preparation techniques of EMPs and discussed the association between functional activity, preparation methods, structure and composition of EMPs, laying a theoretical foundation for the personalized nutritional achievements of EMP. We also establish the foundation for the further investigation and application of EMPs as novel functional foods and healthy products.

Adaptive functioning and academic achievement in pediatric survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Associations with executive functioning, socioeconomic status, and academic support.

OBJECTIVES: This study examines associations of functional outcomes (adaptive functioning and academic achievement) with executive functioning (EF), socioeconomic status (SES), and academic support in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) survivors. METHODS: Fifty survivors of B-lineage ALL treated with chemotherapy-only (42% female, 76% NHW, ages 6-19) were evaluated on performance-based EF and academic achievement, and parent-rated EF and adaptive functioning. Area deprivation and child opportunity (i.e., SES) were extracted using census blocks and tracts. Academic support data were extracted from chart review. RESULTS: Compared to population norms, pediatric ALL survivors demonstrated significantly lower overall adaptive skills and performance in word reading and math calculation (all p ≤ .011). Frequencies of impairment were significantly elevated on all adaptive scales and in math calculation compared to the population (all p ≤ .002). Parent-rated EF significantly predicted overall adaptive skills (p < .001), while performance-based EF significantly predicted word reading and math calculation (all p < .05). Adaptive functioning was not associated with neighborhood-specific variables or academic support. However, academic support predicted word reading (p < .001), while area deprivation and academic support predicted performance-based EF (all p ≤ .02). CONCLUSIONS: Screening of functional outcomes, targeted intervention, and neuropsychological monitoring are necessary to support pediatric ALL survivors' neurocognitive and psychosocial development.

Traumatic brain injury and long-term associations with work, divorce and academic achievement.

OBJECTIVE: Traumatic brain injuries (TBI), irrespective of severity, may have long-term social implications. This study explores the relationships between TBI severity and outcomes related to work stability, divorce, and academic achievement. METHODS: Using a Danish nationwide sample of persons with and without TBI, we employed case-control and longitudinal cohort designs. The case-control design utilized individuals aged 18 to 60 years and examined work stability. Each case, employed at time of TBI, was compared with 10 matched controls. The cohort design utilized individuals alive from 1980 to 2016 with and without TBI and assessed the likelihood of 1) divorce and 2) higher-level education. TBI exposures included concussion, skull fractures, or confirmed TBI. RESULTS: TBI cases exhibited higher odds ratios (OR) for work instability at all follow-ups compared to controls. Increased TBI severity was associated with a higher risk of work instability at 2-year follow-up (concussion: OR = 1.83; skull fracture: OR = 2.22; confirmed TBI: OR = 4.55), and with a higher risk of not working at 10-year follow-up (confirmed TBI: OR = 2.82; concussion: OR = 1.63). The divorce incidence rate ratio (IRR) was elevated in individuals with TBI (males: IRR = 1.52; females: IRR = 1.48) compared to those without TBI. Individuals with childhood TBI had reduced chances of attaining high school degree or higher (males: IRR = 0.79; females: IRR = 0.85) compared to those without TBI. CONCLUSION: TBI is associated with an increased long-term risk of social consequences, including work instability, divorce, and diminished chances of higher education, even in cases with concussion.

Prediction of suicide attempt in a Swedish population-based cohort.

BACKGROUND: Suicidal behaviors are prevalent public health concerns, and we need to improve our predictive ability to better inform prevention efforts. METHODS: Using nationwide longitudinal Swedish registers, we included 344,490 males and 323,177 females born 1982-1990 with information on genetic liability and environmental exposures from birth to age 16: perinatal variables, parental psychopathology (suicide attempt, substance use disorder, major depression), family status, socioeconomic difficulties, peers' psychopathology, and school grades. We conducted sex-specific analysis and developed data-driven predictive models including risk factors that occurred between ages 0 and 16 using structural equation modeling. RESULTS: In both females and males, the best-fitting models reveal a complex risk pathway to suicide attempt. In females, the model indicates four direct effects on suicide attempt risk: the occurrence of suicide attempt in parents during childhood (ß = 0.159, 95% CI: 0.118; 0.199) and adolescence (ß = 0.115, 95% CI: 0.077; 0.153), suicide attempt in peers (ß = 0.068, 95% CI: 0.057; 0.079), and low academic achievement (ß = 0.166, 95% CI: 0.156; 0.175). In males, aggregate genetic liability for suicide attempt (ß = 0.130, 95% CI: 0.111; 0.148), suicide attempt in parents during adolescence (ß = 0.099, 95% CI: 0.074; 0.124), suicide attempt in peers (ß = 0.118, 95% CI: 0.108; 0.129), and low academic achievement (ß = 0.61, 95% CI: 0.152; 0.171) were related to later suicide attempt. These factors also acted as mediators to explain the association between environmental exposures in childhood and later suicide attempt. CONCLUSIONS: These findings illustrate sex-specific pathways to suicide attempt by including risk factors that occur during the development. Results highlight the importance of genetic and family environment but also the prominent role of academic achievement.

The role of formal schooling in the development of children's reading and arithmetic white matter networks.

Children's white matter development is driven by experience, yet it remains poorly understood how it is shaped by attending formal education. A small number of studies compared children before and after the start of formal schooling to understand this, yet they do not allow to separate maturational effects from schooling-related effects. A clever way to (quasi-)experimentally address this issue is the longitudinal school cut-off design, which compares children who are similar in age but differ in schooling (because they are born right before or after the cut-off date for school entry). We used for the first time such a longitudinal school cut-off design to experimentally investigate the effect of schooling on children's white matter networks. We compared "young" first graders (schooling group, n = 34; Mage = 68 months; 20 girls) and "old" preschoolers (non-schooling group, n = 33; Mage = 66 months; 18 girls) that were similar in age but differed in the amount of formal instruction they received. Our study revealed that changes in fractional anisotropy and mean diffusivity in five a priori selected white matter tracts during the transition from preschool to primary school were predominantly driven by age-related maturation. We did not find specific schooling effects on white matter, despite their strong presence for early reading and early arithmetic skills. The present study is the first to disentangle the effects of age-related maturation and schooling on white matter within a longitudinal cohort of 5-year-old preschoolers. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: White matter tracts that have been associated with reading and arithmetic may be susceptible to experience-dependent neuroplasticity when children learn to read and calculate. This longitudinal study used the school cut-off design to isolate schooling-induced from coinciding maturational influences on children's white matter development. White matter changes during the transition from preschool to primary school are predominantly driven by age-related maturation and not by schooling effects. Strong effects of schooling on behavior were shown for early reading and early arithmetic, but not for verbal ability and spatial ability.

Self-concept and academic achievement in children with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Within the pediatric population, a positive self-concept is associated with better academic achievement. Children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at risk for lower quality of life and academic underachievement. Little is known about self-concept among children with CKD and how self-concept influences academic achievement. The objectives of the present study were to (1) describe patient-reported self-concept among children with CKD and (2) evaluate the relationship between self-concept and academic performance. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 23 children, aged 6-16 years, with mild to moderate CKD (cause of disease due to congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract) and 26 age-matched comparators. Participants completed the Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) and the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT-4). Linear regression models were used to evaluate self-concept as a predictor of academic achievement in the CKD cohort. RESULTS: Self-concept ratings were comparable between children with CKD and non-CKD comparators; however, academic achievement trended lower for the CKD patients on measures of arithmetic (estimate = - 0.278, 95% confidence interval (CI) [- 0.530: - 0.026], t(45) = - 1.99, p = 0.053). All of the SDQ domains predicted WRAT-4 arithmetic performance, such that higher scores on the SDQ were associated with higher scores in mathematics. Kidney function did not have an effect on the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the presence of a chronic disease, children with CKD endorse a positive self-concept. Positive self-concept may predict academic success in this population.

Education and employment outcomes in pediatric chronic kidney disease.

As outcomes and survival for children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have improved over the last 30 years, there is an emerging need to characterize and understand later educational and employment outcomes across the spectrum of pediatric CKD severity-ranging from mild CKD to requirement for dialysis and kidney transplantation. Although large-scale research on the topic of long-term educational and employment outcomes in the pediatric CKD population is relatively scarce, the existing literature does support that children across the spectrum of CKD severity are at risk for education-related difficulties including chronic school absenteeism. These education-related difficulties are compounded by well-described neurocognitive deficits-particularly in the domain of executive functioning-that may potentially perpetuate the risk for academic underachievement. This is particularly concerning given that data from the general pediatric population suggest that childhood academic underachievement is associated with higher likelihood of un-/underemployment in adulthood. This review highlights what is known about educational and employment outcomes among persons with a history of childhood CKD, as well as suggestions for interventions to improve educational outcomes for this population.

Skin and macular carotenoids and relations to academic achievement among school-aged children.

ABSTRACTObjectives: Carotenoids are plant pigments that accumulate in human tissue (e.g. macula and skin) and can serve as biomarkers for diet quality; however, knowledge on skin and macular carotenoids in relation to cognition in children is limited. This study aimed to address this gap by assessing links between skin and macular carotenoids and academic achievement in school-aged children.Methods: Children 7-12 years old (n = 81) participated in a crosssectional study. Skin and macular carotenoids were measured with reflection spectroscopy and heterochromatic flicker photometry, respectively. Academic achievement was measured using Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ-IV). Body Mass Index was calculated using height and weight measurements, demographic information was collected using a family demographics and pediatric health history questionnaire, and carotenoid intake was assessed using 7-day diet records.Results: Skin carotenoids were not related to macular pigment (r = 0.08, p = 0.22). Adjusting for age, sex, BMI percentile, household income, and total carotenoid consumption (mg/1000kcal), skin carotenoids were predictive of math (ß = 0.27, p = 0.02), broad math (ß = 0.36, p < 0.01) and math calculation (ß = 0.38, p < 0.01). Skin carotenoids displayed trending relationships with broad reading (ß = 0.23, p = 0.05) and reading fluency (ß = 0.22, p = 0.07). There were no significant associations between macular pigment and academic achievement (all ß's ≤ 0.07, all p's ≥ 0.56).Discussion: Skin carotenoids were positively associated with academic abilities in children, while macular carotenoids did not display this relationship. Future interventions examining prospective effects of changes in carotenoids in different tissues on childhood academic achievement are warranted.

Is adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines associated with greater academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

The purpose of this systematic review was to synthesise the evidence for the association of adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines with academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents. This systematic review was based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, WOS, SPORTDiscus, and EMBASE were searched from their inception to 12 December 2023. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Checklist was used to assess the risk of bias of included studies. In total, 4326 records were identified through database searches; 10 articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in this systematic review. There were eight cross-sectional studies and two longitudinal studies; the main academic-related outcomes were academic achievement and cognitive function. A small association between adherence to all three recommendations and academic achievement (k = 5, r = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.10-0.24, I2 = 49%) was found compared to those who did not adhere to any recommendations.   Conclusion: Findings from this systematic review and meta-analysis reveal a small association between adherence to all three recommendations and greater academic achievement in children and adolescents. Nevertheless, it is imperative to underscore the need for more studies to establish robust evidence underpinning this relationship.   Trial registration: PROSPERO (CRD42021295403). What is Known: • Regular physical activity, reduced screen time, and optimal sleep duration are independently associated with improved academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents. • The associations between adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines and academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents have not been quantitatively synthesised. What is New: • There is a small but positive association between adherence to all three recommendations of the 24-h movement guidelines and greater academic achievement in children and adolescents. • Further well-designed research is needed to focus on academic achievement, cognitive function and classroom behaviours in young individuals.

Am I a good person? Academic correlates of explicit and implicit self-esteem during early childhood.

Implicit and explicit self-esteem are not commonly measured in the same children. Using a cross-sectional design, data from 354 Croatian children (184 girls) in Grade 1 (Mage = 7.55 years) and Grade 5 (Mage = 11.58 years) were collected in Spring 2019. All children completed explicit and implicit self-esteem measures; math and language grades were obtained. For the explicit measure, older children showed lower self-esteem than younger children, and girls showed lower self-esteem than boys. For the implicit measure, there were no age effects, and girls showed higher self-esteem than boys. Although both types of self-esteem were positively associated with academic achievement, implicit self-esteem was associated more strongly with language than with math achievement. Discussion is provided about why self-esteem relates to academic achievement during childhood.

Acute effect of physical activity on academic outcomes in school-aged youth: A systematic review and multivariate meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: There has been an increase in the number of studies examining the effect of acute and chronic physical activity on academic outcomes in children and adolescents in the last two decades. We aimed to systematically determine the acute effects of physical activity on academic outcomes in school-aged youth and to examine possible moderators. METHODS: We conducted a systematic search using PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO databases (from inception to 11th January 2023) for studies assessing the acute effects of physical activity on academic performance-related outcomes in school-aged youth. A univariate and multivariate meta-analysis was conducted based on a random-effects model with restricted maximum likelihood used to pool the academic outcomes results (Hedge's g). RESULTS: We included 11 articles (803 children and adolescents [range: 6-16 years]) in the systematic review. Overall, acute physical activity increased academic outcomes (Hedge's g = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.20-0.50). Multivariate meta-analyses revealed that physical activity increased academic performance in mathematics (Hedge's g = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.16-0.42) and language (Hedge's g = 0.28, 95% CI: 0.09-0.47). Only behavior change techniques (Hedge's g = 0.54, 95% CI, 0.18-0.90, p < 0.001) played a significant role in this relationship. CONCLUSIONS: A single bout of physical activity can improve academic outcomes in school-aged youth, which may serve as a complementary tool for the educational field. However, the observed heterogeneity in the results indicates that we should interpret the findings obtained with caution.