Transcendent thinking counteracts longitudinal effects of mid-adolescent exposure to community violence in the anterior cingulate cortex.

Adolescence involves extensive brain maturation, characterized by social sensitivity and emotional lability, that co-occurs with increased independence. Mid-adolescence is also a hallmark developmental stage when youths become motivated to reflect on the broader personal, ethical, and systems-level implications of happenings, a process we term transcendent thinking. Here, we examine the confluence of these developmental processes to ask, from a transdisciplinary perspective, how might community violence exposure (CVE) impact brain development during mid-adolescence, and how might youths' dispositions for transcendent thinking be protective? Fifty-five low-SES urban youth with no history of delinquency (32 female; 27 Latinx, 28 East Asian) reported their CVE and underwent structural MRI first at age 14-18, and again 2 years later. At the study's start, participants also discussed their feelings about 40 minidocumentaries featuring other teens' compelling situations in a 2-h private interview that was transcribed and coded for transcendent thinking. Controlling for CVE and brain structure at the start: (1) New CVE during the 2-year inter-scan interval was associated with greater gray matter volume (GMV) reduction over that interval in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a central network hub whose reduced volume has been associated with posttraumatic stress disorder, and across multiple additional cortical and subcortical regions; (2) participants' transcendent thinking in the interview independently predicted greater GMV increase during the 2-year inter-scan interval in the ACC. Findings highlight the continued vulnerability of mid-adolescents to community violence and the importance of supporting teens' dispositions to reflect on the complex personal and systems-level implications and affordances of their civic landscape.

Politics of Plasticity: Implications of the New Science of the "Teen Brain" for Education.

In recent years, claims that developmental brain science should inform pedagogical approaches have begun to influence educational policies. This article investigates the promise, pitfalls, processes, and implications of these claims. We explore how research on neuroplasticity has led to enormous interest in harnessing mechanistic models of development for applications in the classroom. Synthesizing analysis from the scientific literature on "neuroeducation" and interviews with key actors in the field, we analyze how neural and cognitive processes are mapped onto pedagogical constructs, and how psychological and social-structural factors are (or are not) integrated into explanations. First, we describe the historical trajectory of educational neuroscience and identify how tensions between antagonist groups struggling for authority over brain-based educational claims shaped the field. Second, we focus on the pervasive use of the concept of "neuroplasticity" in the literature. We argue that it is used as a rhetorical device to create hope and empower children, teachers, and parents through educational exercises that promote neurobiological reflexivity. Third, we turn to the notion of "self-regulation" in the neuroeducational programs. We argue that the rationale of these programs emphasizes the young person's responsibility in navigating their social worlds through the imperative to enhance their executive functions while failing to adequately account for the role of the social environment in the development of self-regulation.

The components of the adolescent brain and its unique sensitivity to sexually explicit material.

INTRODUCTION: The focus of this brief literature review is to explore whether there is a relationship between the unique anatomical and physiological paradigms of the adolescent brain and an increased sensitivity to sexually explicit material. METHODS: The EBSCO Research Data bases were searched using the following key terms: adolescence, adolescent brain development, neuroplasticity, sexually explicit material, sexualization, and pornography. RESULTS: The literature highlighted several components of the adolescent brain that are different than the mature brain. These include: an immature prefrontal cortex and over-responsive limbic and striatal circuits, heightened period for neuroplasticity, overactive dopamine system, a pronounced HPA axis, augmented levels of testosterone, and the unique impact of steroid hormones. The physiological response to sexually explicit material is delineated. The overlap of key areas associated with the unique adolescent brain development and sexually explicit material is noteworthy. A working model summary that compares the response of the adult and adolescent brain to the same sexually explicit stimulus is outlined. CONCLUSIONS: The literature suggests that the adolescent brain may indeed be more sensitive to sexually explicit material, but due to a lack of empirical studies this question cannot be answered definitively. Suggestions for future research are given to further advance the work in this applicable field of today.

NowIKnowMyABCD: A global resource hub for researchers using data from the ABCD Study.

The Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, involving over 11,000 youth and their families, is a groundbreaking project examining various factors impacting brain and cognitive development. Despite yielding hundreds of publications and counting, the ABCD Study has lacked a centralized help platform to assist researchers in navigating and analyzing the extensive ABCD dataset. To support the ABCD research community, we created NowIKnowMyABCD, the first centralized documentation and communication resource publicly available to researchers using ABCD Study data. It consists of two core elements: a user-focused website and a moderated discussion board. The website serves as a repository for ABCD-related resources, tutorials, and a live feed of relevant updates and queries sourced from social media websites. The discussion board offers a platform for researchers to seek guidance, troubleshoot issues, and engage with peers. Our aim is for NowIKnowMyABCD to grow with participation from the ABCD research community, fostering transparency, collaboration, and adherence to open science principles.

Diverse adolescents' transcendent thinking predicts young adult psychosocial outcomes via brain network development.

Developmental scientists have long described mid-adolescents' emerging capacities to make deep meaning about the social world and self, here called transcendent thinking, as a hallmark developmental stage. In this 5-years longitudinal study, sixty-five 14-18 years-old youths' proclivities to grapple psychologically with the ethical, systems-level and personal implications of social stories, predicted future increases in the coordination of two key brain networks: the default-mode network, involved in reflective, autobiographical and free-form thinking, and the executive control network, involved in effortful, focused thinking; findings were independent of IQ, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background. This neural development predicted late-adolescent identity development, which predicted young-adult self-liking and relationship satisfaction, in a developmental cascade. The findings reveal a novel predictor of mid-adolescents' neural development, and suggest the importance of attending to adolescents' proclivities to engage agentically with complex perspectives and emotions on the social and personal relevance of issues, such as through civically minded educational approaches.

White matter and latency of visual evoked potentials during maturation: A miniature pig model of adolescent development.

BACKGROUND: Continuous myelination of cerebral white matter (WM) during adolescence overlaps with the formation of higher cognitive skills and the onset of many neuropsychiatric disorders. We developed a miniature-pig model of adolescent brain development for neuroimaging and neurophysiological assessment during this critical period. Minipigs have gyroencephalic brains with a large cerebral WM compartment and a well-defined adolescence period. METHODS: Eight Sinclair™ minipigs (Sus scrofa domestica) were evaluated four times during weeks 14-28 (40, 28 and 28 days apart) of adolescence using monocular visual stimulation (1 Hz)-evoked potentials and diffusion MRI (dMRI) of WM. The latency for the pre-positive 30 ms (PP30), positive 30 ms (P30) and negative 50 ms (N50) components of the flash visual evoked potentials (fVEPs) and their interhemispheric latency (IL) were recorded in the frontal, central and occipital areas during ten 60-second stimulations for each eye. The dMRI imaging protocol consisted of fifteen b-shells (b = 0-3500 s/mm2) with 32 directions/shell, providing measurements that included fractional anisotropy (FA), radial kurtosis, kurtosis anisotropy (KA), axonal water fraction (AWF), and the permeability-diffusivity index (PDI). RESULTS: Significant reductions (p < 0.05) in the latency and IL of fVEP measurements paralleled significant rises in FA, KA, AWF and PDI over the same period. The longitudinal latency changes in fVEPs were primarily associated with whole-brain changes in diffusion parameters, while fVEP IL changes were related to maturation of the corpus callosum. CONCLUSIONS: Good agreement between reduction in the latency of fVEPs and maturation of cerebral WM was interpreted as evidence for ongoing myelination and confirmation of the minipig as a viable research platform. Adolescent development in minipigs can be studied using human neuroimaging and neurophysiological protocols and followed up with more invasive assays to investigate key neurodevelopmental hypotheses in psychiatry.

Calendar age and puberty-related development of regional gray matter volume and white matter tracts during adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Adolescence is a critical time for brain development. Findings from previous studies have been inconsistent, failing to distinguish the influence of pubertal status and aging on brain maturation. The current study sought to address these inconsistencies, addressing the trajectories of pubertal development and aging by longitudinally tracking structural brain development during adolescence. METHODS: Two cohorts of healthy children were recruited (cohort 1: 9-10 years old; cohort 2: 12-13 years old at baseline). MRI data were acquired for gray matter volume and white matter tract measures. To determine whether age, pubertal status, both or their interaction best modelled longitudinal data, we compared four multi-level linear regression models to the null model (general brain growth indexed by total segmented volume) using Bayesian model selection. RESULTS: Data were collected at baseline (n = 116), 12 months (n = 97) and 24 months (n = 84) after baseline. Findings demonstrated that the development of most regional gray matter volume, and white matter tract measures, were best modelled by age. Interestingly, precentral and paracentral regions of the cortex, as well as the accumbens demonstrated significant preference for the pubertal status model. None of the white matter tract measures were better modelled by pubertal status. LIMITATIONS: The major limitation of this study is the two-cohort recruitment. Although this allowed a faster coverage of the age span, a complete per person trajectory over 6 years of development (9-15 years) could not be investigated. CONCLUSIONS: Comparing the impact of age and pubertal status on regional gray matter volume and white matter tract measures, we found age to best predict longitudinal changes. Further longitudinal studies investigating the differential influence of puberty status and age on brain development in more diverse samples are needed to replicate the present results and address mechanisms underlying norm-variants in brain development.

Youth health in a digital world: Approaching screen use in clinical practice.

New technologies, such as smartphones, have altered our behaviours and cultural structures more dramatically than televisions of our past. The array of today's electronic devices have pulled our eyes closer to the screens and our focus further into the boxes behind those screens. Screens may serve us; simultaneously, they are increasingly giving rise to health and social challenges that researchers are only beginning to understand. There is a growing dis-ease among parents and health care providers (HCPs) about how screens are affecting youth. As the push for increased screen time continues in both educational and workplace settings, HCPs are not only tasked with helping parents and youth cope, but they must find ways to manage the impact of increased personal and professional screen time on their own wellbeing. This article considers the impact of increased screen time on two groups: youth and the HCPs supporting them. Furthermore, the authors explore the impact of screen use on clinical interactions, and patient care, suggesting a process for addressing screen use and provide specific tools including a reflective query for HCPs to better evaluate the impact of their own screen usage, 'the Coaching Stance' and TGROW, a questioning approach derived from coaching theory.

Experience during adolescence shapes brain development: From synapses and networks to normal and pathological behavior.

Adolescence is a period of dramatic neural reorganization creating a period of vulnerability and the possibility for the development of psychopathology. The maturation of various neural circuits during adolescence depends, to a large degree, on one's experiences both physical and psychosocial. This occurs through a process of plasticity which is the structural and functional adaptation of the nervous system in response to environmental demands, physiological changes and experiences. During adolescence, this adaptation proceeds upon a backdrop of structural and functional alterations imparted by genetic and epigenetic factors and experiences both prior to birth and during the postnatal period. Plasticity entails an altering of connections between neurons through long-term potentiation (LTP) (which alters synaptic efficiency), synaptogenesis, axonal sprouting, dendritic remodeling, neurogenesis and recruitment (Skaper et al., 2017). Although most empirical evidence for plasticity derives from studies of the sensory systems, recent studies have suggested that during adolescence, social, emotional, and cognitive experiences alter the structure and function of the networks subserving these domains of behavior. Each of these neural networks exhibits heightened vulnerability to experience-dependent plasticity during the sensitive periods which occur in different circuits and different brain regions at specific periods of development. This report will summarize some examples of adaptation which occur during adolescence and some evidence that the adolescent brain responds differently to stimuli compared to adults and children. This symposium, "Experience during adolescence shapes brain development: from synapses and networks to normal and pathological behavior" occurred during the Developmental Neurotoxicology Society/Teratology Society Annual Meeting in Clearwater Florida, June 2018. The sections will describe the maturation of the brain during adolescence as studied using imaging technologies, illustrate how plasticity shapes the structure of the brain using examples of pathological conditions such as Tourette's' syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and a review of the key molecular systems involved in this plasticity and how some commonly abused substances alter brain development. The role of stimulants used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the plasticity of the reward circuit is then described. Lastly, clinical data promoting an understanding of peer-influences on risky behavior in adolescents provides evidence for the complexity of the roles that peers play in decision making, a phenomenon different from that in the adult. Imaging studies have revealed that activation of the social network by the presence of peers at times of decision making is unique in the adolescent. Since normal brain development relies on experiences which alter the functional and structural connections between cells within circuits and networks to ultimately alter behavior, readers can be made aware of the myriad of ways normal developmental processes can be hijacked. The vulnerability of developing adolescent brain places the adolescent at risk for the development of a life time of abnormal behaviors and mental disorders.

Miniature pig model of human adolescent brain white matter development.

BACKGROUND: Neuroscience research in brain development and disorders can benefit from an in vivo animal model that portrays normal white matter (WM) development trajectories and has a sufficiently large cerebrum for imaging with human MRI scanners and protocols. NEW METHOD: Twelve three-month-old Sinclair™ miniature pigs (Sus scrofa domestica) were longitudinally evaluated during adolescent development using advanced diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) focused on cerebral WM. Animals had three MRI scans every 23.95 ±â€¯3.73 days using a 3-T scanner. The DWI imaging protocol closely modeled advanced human structural protocols and consisted of fifteen b-shells (b = 0-3500 s/mm2) with 32-directions/shell. DWI data were analyzed using diffusion kurtosis and bi-exponential modeling that provided measurements that included fractional anisotropy (FA), radial kurtosis, kurtosis anisotropy (KA), axial kurtosis, tortuosity, and permeability-diffusivity index (PDI). RESULTS: Significant longitudinal effects of brain development were observed for whole-brain average FA, KA, and PDI (all p < 0.001). There were expected regional differences in trends, with corpus callosum fibers showing the highest rate of change. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S): Pigs have a large, gyrencephalic brain that can be studied using clinical MRI scanners/protocols. Pigs are less complex than non-human primates thus satisfying the "replacement" principle of animal research. CONCLUSIONS: Longitudinal effects were observed for whole-brain and regional diffusion measurements. The changes in diffusion measurements were interepreted as evidence for ongoing myelination and maturation of cerebral WM. Corpus callosum and superficial cortical WM showed the expected higher rates of change, mirroring results in humans.

Miniature pig magnetic resonance spectroscopy model of normal adolescent brain development.

BACKGROUND: We are developing the miniature pig (Sus scrofa domestica), an in-vivo translational, gyrencephalic model for brain development, as an alternative to laboratory rodents/non-human primates. We analyzed longitudinal changes in adolescent pigs using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) and examined the relationship with white matter (WM) integrity derived from diffusion weighted imaging (DWI). NEW METHOD: Twelve female Sinclair™ pigs underwent three imaging/spectroscopy sessions every 23.95 ± 3.73 days beginning at three months of age using a clinical 3 T scanner. 1H-MRS data were collected using 1.2 × 1.0 × 3.0 cm voxels placed in left and right hemisphere WM using a Point Resolved Spectroscopy sequence (TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30 ms). Concentrations of N-acetylaspartate, myo-inositol (MI), glutamate + glutamine, choline, creatine, and macromolecules (MM) 09 and 14 were averaged from both hemispheres. DWI data were collected using 15 shells of b-values (b = 0-3500 s/mm2) with 32 directions/shell and fit using the WM Tract Integrity model to calculate fractional anisotropy (FA), kurtosis anisotropy (KA) and permeability-diffusivity index. RESULTS: MI and MM09 significantly declined with age. Increased FA and KA significantly correlated with decline in MI and MM09. Correlations lost significance once corrected for age. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: MRI scanners/protocols can be used to collect 1H-MRS and DWI data in pigs. Pigs have a larger, more complex, gyrencephalic brain than laboratory rodents but are less complex than non-human primates, thus satisfying the "replacement" principle of animal research. CONCLUSIONS: Longitudinal effects in MRS measurements were similar to those reported in adolescent humans. MRS changes correlated with diffusion measurements indicating ongoing WM myelination/maturation.

Neural Correlates of Social Influence on Risk Taking and Substance Use in Adolescents.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Adolescents often engage in elevated levels of risk taking that gives rise to substance use. Family and peers constitute the primary contextual risk factors for adolescent substance use. This report reviews how families and peers influence adolescent neurocognitive development to inform their risk taking and subsequent substance use. RECENT FINDINGS: Developmental neuroscience using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has identified regions of the brain involved in social cognition, cognitive control, and reward processing that are integrally linked to social influence on adolescent risk taking. These neural mechanisms play a role in how peer and family influence (e.g., physical presence, relationship quality, rejection) translates into adolescent substance use. SUMMARY: Peers and families can independently, and in tandem, contribute to adolescent substance use, for better or for worse. We propose that future work utilize fMRI to investigate the neural mechanisms involved in different aspects of peer and family influence, and how these contexts uniquely and interactively influence adolescent substance use initiation and escalation across development.

Executive function and cortical thickness in youths prenatally exposed to cocaine, alcohol and tobacco.

Small and detrimental, albeit inconsistent, effects of prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) during early childhood have been reported. The teratogenic effects of prenatal alcohol (PAE) and tobacco exposure (PTE) on neurobehavior are more firmly established than PCE. We tested if co-exposure to all three drugs could be related to greater differences in brain structure than exposure to cocaine alone. Participants (n=42, PCE=27; age range=14-16 years) received an executive function battery prior to a T1-weighted 3T structural MRI scan. Cortical thickness was measured using FreeSurfer (v5.1). Fetal drug exposure was quantified through maternal self-reports usage during pregnancy. Using general linear modeling, we found no main effects of PCE on cortical thickness, but significant main effects of PAE and PTE in superior and medial frontal regions, after co-varying for the effects of age, sex, and each drug of exposure. Significant alcohol-by-tobacco interactions, and significant cocaine-by-alcohol interactions on cortical thickness in medial parietal and temporal regions were also observed. Poly-drug exposure and cognitive function also showed significant interactions with cortical thickness: lower cortical thickness was associated with better performance in PCE-exposed adolescents. Results suggest that although children with PCE have subtle but persistent brain cortical differences until mid-to-late adolescence.

Development of the default mode and central executive networks across early adolescence: a longitudinal study.

The mature brain is organized into distinct neural networks defined by regions demonstrating correlated activity during task performance as well as rest. While research has begun to examine differences in these networks between children and adults, little is known about developmental changes during early adolescence. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we examined the Default Mode Network (DMN) and the Central Executive Network (CEN) at ages 10 and 13 in a longitudinal sample of 45 participants. In the DMN, participants showed increasing integration (i.e., stronger within-network correlations) between the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the medial prefrontal cortex. During this time frame participants also showed increased segregation (i.e., weaker between-network correlations) between the PCC and the CEN. Similarly, from age 10 to 13, participants showed increased connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and other CEN nodes, as well as increasing DMN segregation. IQ was significantly positively related to CEN integration at age 10, and between-network segregation at both ages. These findings highlight early adolescence as a period of significant maturation for the brain's functional architecture and demonstrate the utility of longitudinal designs to investigate neural network development.