Land-use trajectories for sustainable land system transformations: Identifying leverage points in a global biodiversity hotspot.

Sustainable land-system transformations are necessary to avert biodiversity and climate collapse. However, it remains unclear where entry points for transformations exist in complex land systems. Here, we conceptualize land systems along land-use trajectories, which allows us to identify and evaluate leverage points, i.e., entry points on the trajectory where targeted interventions have particular leverage to influence land-use decisions. We apply this framework in the biodiversity hotspot Madagascar. In the northeast, smallholder agriculture results in a land-use trajectory originating in old-growth forests and spanning from forest fragments to shifting hill rice cultivation and vanilla agroforests. Integrating interdisciplinary empirical data on seven taxa, five ecosystem services, and three measures of agricultural productivity, we assess trade-offs and cobenefits of land-use decisions at three leverage points along the trajectory. These trade-offs and cobenefits differ between leverage points: Two leverage points are situated at the conversion of old-growth forests and forest fragments to shifting cultivation and agroforestry, resulting in considerable trade-offs, especially between endemic biodiversity and agricultural productivity. Here, interventions enabling smallholders to conserve forests are necessary. This is urgent since ongoing forest loss threatens to eliminate these leverage points due to path dependency. The third leverage point allows for the restoration of land under shifting cultivation through vanilla agroforests and offers cobenefits between restoration goals and agricultural productivity. The co-occurring leverage points highlight that conservation and restoration are simultaneously necessary to avert collapse of multifunctional mosaic landscapes. Methodologically, the framework highlights the importance of considering path dependency along trajectories to achieve sustainable land-system transformations.

Combining modeling and experimental approaches for developing rice-oil palm agroforestry systems.

Monoculture systems in South East Asia are facing challenges due to climate change-induced extreme weather conditions, leading to significant annual production losses in rice and oil palm. To ensure the stability of these crops, innovative strategies like resilient agroforestry systems need to be explored. Converting oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) monocultures to rice (Oryza sativa)-based intercropping systems shows promise, but achieving optimal yields requires adjusting palm density and identifying rice varieties adapted to changes in light quantity and diurnal fluctuation. This paper proposes a methodology that combines a model of light interception with indoor experiments to assess the feasibility of rice-oil palm agroforestry systems. Using a functional-structural plant model of oil palm, the planting design was optimized to maximize transmitted light for rice. Simulation results estimated the potential impact on oil palm carbon assimilation and transpiration. In growth chambers, simulated light conditions were replicated with adjustments to intensity and daily fluctuation. Three light treatments independently evaluated the effects of light intensity and fluctuation on different rice accessions. The simulation study revealed intercropping designs that significantly increased light transmission for rice cultivation with minimal decrease in oil palm densities compared with conventional designs. The results estimated a loss in oil palm productivity of less than 10%, attributed to improved carbon assimilation and water use efficiency. Changes in rice plant architecture were primarily influenced by light quantity, while variations in yield components were attributed to light fluctuations. Different rice accessions exhibited diverse responses to light fluctuations, indicating the potential for selecting genotypes suitable for agroforestry systems.

Advancing Fine Branch Biomass Estimation with Lidar and Structural Models.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Lidar is a promising tool for fast and accurate measurements of trees. There are several approaches to estimate aboveground woody biomass using lidar point clouds. One of the most widely used methods involves fitting geometric primitives (e.g. cylinders) to the point cloud, thereby reconstructing both the geometry and topology of the tree. However, current algorithms are not suited for accurate estimation of the volume of finer branches, because of the unreliable point dispersions from e.g. beam footprint compared to the structure diameter. METHODS: We propose a new method that couples point cloud-based skeletonization and multi-linear statistical modelling based on structural data to make a model (structural model) that accurately estimates the aboveground woody biomass of trees from high-quality lidar point clouds, including finer branches. The structural model was tested at segment, axis, and branch level, and compared to a cylinder fitting algorithm and to the pipe model theory. KEY RESULTS: The model accurately predicted the biomass with 1.6% nRMSE at the segment scale from a k-fold cross-validation. It also gave satisfactory results when up-scaled to the branch level with a significantly lower error (13% nRMSE) and bias (-5%) compared to conventional cylinder fitting to the point cloud (nRMSE: 92%, bias: 82%), or using the pipe model theory (nRMSE: 31%, bias: -27%).The model was then applied to the whole-tree scale and showed that the sampled trees had more than 1.7km of structures on average and that 96% of that length was coming from the twigs (i.e. <5 cm diameter). Our results showed that neglecting twigs can lead to a significant underestimation of tree aboveground woody biomass (-21%). CONCLUSIONS: The structural model approach is an effective method that allows a more accurate estimation of the volumes of smaller branches from lidar point clouds. This method is versatile but requires manual measurements on branches for calibration. Nevertheless, once the model is calibrated, it can provide unbiased and large-scale estimations of tree structure volumes, making it an excellent choice for accurate 3D reconstruction of trees and estimating standing biomass.

Quantitative determination of specialised metabolites in different parts of Juglans regia Linn. and Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch by using UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS/MS.

INTRODUCTION: Juglans regia Linn. and Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch are nut-producing plant species of the Juglandaceae family. Bioactive compounds like naphthoquinones, tetralones, and diarylheptanoids are dominant in these species. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to develop and validate a fast and sensitive analytical method by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography diode array detection mass spectrometry (UHPLC-DAD-MS) for quantification and identification of bioactive compounds in fruit pericarps and leaves of J. regia and C. illinoinensis collected from two different states of north India. METHODOLOGY: The dried pericarps of J. regia and C. illinoinensis (500 mg) were extracted with ethyl acetate-methanol (50:50 v/v, 20 mL, 50°C, 30 min) by ultrasonication and analysed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography diode array detection quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS/MS) for qualitative and quantitative examination of phytoconstituents. The method was validated according to International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human use (ICH) guidelines for linearity, precision, accuracy, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ). RESULTS: Here, we report the quantification of dihydrophaseic acid (1), 4,5-dihydroxytetralone (2), 4,8-dihydroxytetralone (3), 5,8-dihydroxy-3-methoxytetralone (4), and juglanin A (5) in the pericarps and leaves of J. regia and C. illinoinensis. Furthermore, using the hyphenated analytical method, a total of 62 compounds were tentatively characterised in different samples. The principal component analysis (PCA) showed diversity between the analysed sample's composition. Also, the study evaluated the variation of bioactive compounds among different parts of J. regia and C. illinoinensis collected from different regions of northern India by UHPLC-DAD-QTOF-MS/MS. CONCLUSION: The developed method is simple, rapid, and selective for the identification and characterisation of bioactive molecules.

Land cover changes and carbon dynamics in Central India's dry tropical forests: A 25-year assessment and nature-based eco-restoration approaches.

Anthropogenic land use and land cover changes are major drivers of environmental degradation and declining soil health across heterogeneous landscapes in Central India. To examines the land cover changes and spatio-temporal variations in forest carbon stock and soil organic carbon (SOC) over the past 25 years in central India. Geospatial techniques, coupled with ground measurements were employed to detect changes in land cover, carbon stocks in vegetation, and soil carbon in various vegetation types. The results indicate that forested areas have decreased, while agriculture and habitation have expanded between 1997 and 2022. Vegetation C stocks varied significantly (P < 0.05) from 39.42 to 139.95 Mg ha-1 and the SOC varied from 7.02 to 17.98 Mg ha-1 under different soil profiles across vegetation types, which decreased with soil depth, while the pH and bulk density increased. The maximum bulk density in the soil was found at a depth of 40-60 cm (lower profile) in Bamboo Brake, while the minimum was observed under Dense Mixed Forest at a depth of 0-20 cm (top profile). The topsoil profile contributed 33.6%-39%, the middle profile (20-40 cm) was 33.6%-34.4%, and the lower profile was 26.5%-30.8% of soil organic carbon. The study site has experienced rapid carbon losses due to changes in land cover, such as illegal expansion of agriculture, encroachments into forest fringes, and activities like selective logging and overgrazing, which have degraded dense forests. The ecological engineering of degraded ecosystems poses a great challenge and application of complex biological, mechanical and engineering measures is highly cumbersome, expensive, uneconomical and practically not feasible for upscaling. Nevertheless, proposed nature-based solutions mimic natural reparation and processes provide sustainable interventions for the reclamation of ruined landscapes besides improving ecological integrity and rendering many co-benefits to ecosystems and human societies.

Enhancing productivity and sustainability of ravine lands through horti-silviculture and soil moisture conservation: A pathway to land degradation neutrality.

Ravine lands are the worst type of land degradation affecting soil quality and biodiversity. Crop production in such lands is impossible without adopting proper conservation measures. In-situ moisture conservation techniques could play an instrumental role in restoring ravine lands by improving soil moisture. We hypothesized that restoring ravine land through a combination of tree planting, fruit crop cultivation, and in-situ moisture conservation practice would result in significant improvements in productivity, profitability, and soil fertility. An experiment was conducted involving the combination of Malabar Neem (Melia dubia) and Dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) in conjunction with in-situ soil moisture conservation measures specifically involving half-moon structures (HM). The experiment was conducted under randomized block design (RBD) comprising eight treatments. These treatments include sole Melia cultivation (MD 3m × 3m), sole cultivation of dragon fruit (DF 3m × 3m), silviculture system (MDF-3m × 3m), horti-silviculture system with larger spacing (MDF-4m × 4m), sole Melia cultivation with in-situ moisture conservation (MDH-3m × 3m), sole Dragon fruit cultivation with in-situ moisture conservation (DFH-3m × 3m), horti-silviculture system of Melia and Dragon fruit with in-situ moisture conservation (MDFH-3m × 3m), and horti-silviculture system with larger spacing and in-situ moisture conservation (MDFH-4m × 4m). Each treatment was replicated thrice to evaluate their impact on productivity, profitability, soil fertility, and carbon sequestration for 8 years (2016-2023). The results revealed that the horti-silviculture system (MDFH-3 × 3 m) exhibited the highest total tree biomass and total carbon sequestration with an increase of 183.2% and 82.8% respectively, compared to sole Melia cultivation without HM and sole Melia with HM. Furthermore, sole Melia with HM augmented soil nutrients (N, P, K, and SOC) by 74.4%, 66.4%, 35.2%, and 78.3%, respectively, compared to control (no planting), with performance at par with MDFH-3 × 3 m. Similarly, sole Melia with HM enhanced SOC stock and SOC sequestration rate by 79.2% and 248% over control. However, it was found at par with MDFH-3 × 3 m. The horti-silviculture system (MDFH-3 × 3 m) consistently produced the highest fruit yield throughout the years surpassing other treatments. This treatment increased the average dragon fruit yield by 115.3% compared to sole dragon fruit without HM. Hence, the adoption of the horti-silviculture system (MDFH-3 × 3 m) could be a promising strategy for achieving enhanced environmental and economic benefits in ravine lands. Therefore, dragon fruit based horti-silviculture system (MDFH-3 × 3 m) could be recommended for restoration of ravine lands, improving land productivity, and mitigating impact of soil erosion particularly in Western India or similar agro-climatic regions of the world.

Soil organic carbon fractionation, carbon index, and microbial activity under different agroforestry systems in North Eastern Himalayas, India.

The potential of soil organic carbon fractions for agroforestry systems (AFSs) is not well understood. Five distinct AFSs were tested for its impact on soil organic carbon fractionation, carbon index, and microbial activity in North Eastern Himalayas, India. The mean labile carbon (LC) ranged from 4.55 to 5.43 kg soil-1 across the land use systems. Napier system observed the lowest very labile carbon (VLC) 12.36 kg soil-1 in 60-75-cm depth. The mean non labile carbon (NLC) ranged from 15.67 to 16.83 g kg soil-1 across the land use. Highest less labile carbon (LLC) was observed in agri-horti-silviculture (AHS) followed by agri-silvi-horticulture (ASH) land use system. The black gram + mandarin + Alnus nepalensis land use recorded higher lability index (1.66) followed by maize + Schima wallichii (1.65) in 0-15-cm depth. Among the different land use systems, carbon pool index increased in all the depths over buckwheat + mandarin. The mean carbon management index (CMI) value ranged from 167.02 to 210.12 among the land use system. The mean CMI was highest in black gram + mandarin + Alnus nepalensis (210.12) followed by soybean + Ficus hookerii + guava (191.56), maize + Schima wallichii (281.71), and lowest in buckwheat + mandarin (167.02). Among the AFSs, black gram + mandarin + Alnus nepalensis showed greater amount of carbon pool index, lability index, and carbon management index and, hence, considered the best sustainable agroforestry system to sequester more carbon in the Sikkim Himalaya. Such system also retained more different organic carbon fractions. The mean CMI value ranged from 167.02 to 210.12 among AFSs. Acid phosphatase activity was more during the rainy season followed by winter and summer season. Similar trends were followed by the urease activity in all the three seasons. Overall conclusion from this investigation is that SOC fractions, carbon index, and microbial activity levels are strongly influenced by the prevailing agroforestry systems.

Foraging behavior of Highland cattle in silvopastoral systems in the Alps.

Trees and shrubs expanded in the last decades in European mountains due to land abandonment and the decrease in grazing pressure, and are expected to further spread also due to climate change. As a consequence of low forage quality and topographic constraints, the management of mountain environments dominated by woody vegetation with livestock is often challenging. Silvopastoral systems based on cattle hardy breeds able to forage on woody plants, such as Highland cattle, could be a suitable option for the management and restoration of such environments. In this study, we used direct observations to explore the foraging behavior of Highland cattle in four study areas across the western Alps. In particular, we assessed: (1) cattle diet composition, (2) the selection for more than 30 tree and shrub species, and (3) the relationships between species consumption and their abundance in the environment. Highland cattle fed on a mixture of both woody and herbaceous species, including between 15 and 46% of woody plants in the diet. Some trees (e.g., Celtis australis, Fraxinus spp., and Populus tremula) and shrubs (e.g., Frangula alnus, Rhamnus spp., and Rubus idaeus) were positively selected by cattle, thus they could be an important forage supplement to their diet. Moreover, the results highlighted that relative species consumption generally increased with increasing species abundance in the environment, suggesting that this cattle breed could be suitable to control shrub expansion in highly encroached areas. The outcomes of this study can support the development of targeted silvopastoral systems in the Alps. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10457-023-00926-z.

Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi under different agroforestry practices in the drylands of Southern Ethiopia.

The conversion of an agroforestry based agricultural system to a monocropping farming system influences the distribution and composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). The aim of this paper was to analyze AMF species diversity, spore density, and root colonization across different agroforestry practices (AFP) in southern Ethiopia. Soil and root samples were collected from homegarden, cropland, woodlot, and trees on soil and water conservation-based AFP. AMF spores were extracted from the soil and species diversity was evaluated using morphological analysis and root colonization from root samples. The AMF spore density, root colonization and composition were significantly different among the AFP (P < 0.05). In this study, 43 AMF morphotypes belonging to eleven genera were found, dominated by Acaulospora (32.56%), followed by Claroideoglomus (18.60%). Home gardens had the highest spore density (7641.5 spore100 g- 1 dry soil) and the lowest was recorded in croplands (683.6 spore100 g- 1 dry soil). Woodlot had the highest root colonization (54.75%), followed by homegarden (48.25%). The highest isolation frequency (63.63%) was recorded for Acaulospora scrobiculata. The distribution of AMF species and diversity were significantly related to soil total nitrogen and organic carbon. The homegarden and woodlot AFP were suitable for soil AMF reserve and conservation.

Soil carbon sequestration in global working lands as a gateway for negative emission technologies.

The ongoing climate crisis merits an urgent need to devise management approaches and new technologies to reduce atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations (GHG) in the near term. However, each year that GHG concentrations continue to rise, pressure mounts to develop and deploy atmospheric CO2 removal pathways as a complement to, and not replacement for, emissions reductions. Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) practices in working lands provide a low-tech and cost-effective means for removing CO2 from the atmosphere while also delivering co-benefits to people and ecosystems. Our model estimates suggest that, assuming additive effects, the technical potential of combined SCS practices can provide 30%-70% of the carbon removal required by the Paris Climate Agreement if applied to 25%-50% of the available global land area, respectively. Atmospheric CO2 drawdown via SCS has the potential to last decades to centuries, although more research is needed to determine the long-term viability at scale and the durability of the carbon stored. Regardless of these research needs, we argue that SCS can at least serve as a bridging technology, reducing atmospheric CO2 in the short term while energy and transportation systems adapt to a low-C economy. Soil C sequestration in working lands holds promise as a climate change mitigation tool, but the current rate of implementation remains too slow to make significant progress toward global emissions goals by 2050. Outreach and education, methodology development for C offset registries, improved access to materials and supplies, and improved research networks are needed to accelerate the rate of SCS practice implementation. Herein, we present an argument for the immediate adoption of SCS practices in working lands and recommendations for improved implementation.

Garcinia kola: a critical review on chemistry and pharmacology of an important West African medicinal plant.

Garcinia kola Heckel (Clusiaceae) is a tree indigenous to West and Central Africa. All plant parts, but especially the seeds, are of value in local folklore medicine. Garcinia kola is used in treatment of numerous diseases, including gastric disorders, bronchial diseases, fever, malaria and is used to induce a stimulating and aphrodisiac effect. The plant is now attracting considerable interest as a possible source of pharmaceutically important drugs. Several different classes of compounds such as biflavonoids, benzophenones, benzofurans, benzopyran, vitamin E derivatives, xanthones, and phytosterols, have been isolated from G. kola, of which many appears to be found only in this species, such as garcinianin (found in seeds and roots), kolanone (fruit pulp, seeds, roots), gakolanone (stem bark), garcinoic acid, garcinal (both in seeds), garcifuran A and B, and garcipyran (all in roots). They showed a wide range of pharmacological activities (e.g. analgesic, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective and neuroprotective effects), though this has only been confirmed in animal models. Kolaviron is the most studied compound and is perceived by many studies as the active principle of G. kola. However, its research is associated with significant flaws (e.g. too high doses tested, inappropriate positive control). Garcinol has been tested under better conditions and is perhaps showing more promising results and should attract deeper research interest (especially in the area of anticancer, antimicrobial, and neuroprotective activity). Human clinical trials and mechanism-of-action studies must be carried out to verify whether any of the compounds present in G. kola may be used as a lead in the drug development.

Birds and bats enhance cacao yield despite suppressing arthropod mesopredation.

Bird- and bat-mediated biocontrol benefits the productivity of tropical commodity crops such as cacao, but the ecological interactions driving these ecosystem services remain poorly understood. Whereas birds and bats prey on herbivorous arthropods, they may also prey on arthropod mesopredators such as ants, with poorly understood consequences for pest biocontrol. We used a full-factorial experiment excluding birds, bats, and ants to assess their effects on (a) the abundance of multiple arthropod groups; (b) predation pressure on arthropods evaluated through artificial sentinel caterpillars; and (c) cacao yield over 1 year in shaded agroforestry systems of native cacao varieties in Peru. Birds and bats increased cacao yield by 118%, which translates in smallholder benefits of ca. US $959 ha-1 year-1 . Birds and bats decreased predation by ants and other arthropods, but contributed to the control of phytophagous taxa such as aphids and mealybugs. By contrast, ant presence increased the abundance of these sap-sucking insects, with negative impacts for cacao yield. Notably, high abundances of the dominant ant Nylanderia sp., known to attend sap-sucking insects, were associated with lower cacao yield along a distance gradient from the closest forest edge. According to these results, arthropod predation by birds and bats, rather than mesopredation by arthropods, was most responsible for increases in cacao yield. Moving forward, detailed research about their trophic interactions will be necessary to identify the cause of such benefits. Retaining and restoring the large benefits of birds and bats as well as minimizing disservices by other taxa in cacao agroforests can benefit from management schemes that prioritize preservation of shade trees and adjacent forests within agroforestry landscapes.

Differential gene expression analysis reveals the fast-growth mechanisms in Melia dubia at different stand ages.

BACKGROUND: Melia dubia Cav. is a fast-growing multipurpose tree suitable for agroforestry and has been widely cultivated for wood-based industries, particularly pulp and paper production. Despite its high economic value in India, there is a lack of information regarding the molecular mechanism driving its fast-growth. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms responsible for fast-growth by expression analysis of selective candidate genes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Initially, growth traits were assessed, including tree height and diameter at breast height (DBH), across three different ages (one-year-old, two-year-old, and three-year-old) of M. dubia plantations. Tree volume based on tree height and DBH, was also calculated. The analysis of annual tree height increment revealed that the second-year plantation exhibited the higher increment, followed by first and third years. In contrast, DBH was maximum in third-year plantation, followed by the second and first years. Similarly, annual tree volume increment showed a similar trend with DBH that maximum in the third year, followed by second and first years. Furthermore, a differential gene expression analysis was performed using qRT-PCR on four genes such as Phloem Intercalated with Xylem (PXY), Clavata3/Embryo Surrounding Region-Related 41 (CLE41), 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase (ACS-1) and Hemoglobin1 (Hb1) for downstream analysis. The relative gene expression showed up-regulation of CLE41, ACS-1, and Hb1 genes, while the PXY gene was downregulated across the tree ages. Interestingly, a positive association was observed between tree growth and the expression of the selected candidate genes. CONCLUSION: Our results pave the way for further research on the regulatory mechanisms of genes involved in fast-growth and provide a basis for genetic improvement of Melia dubia.

Applied nucleation under high biodiversity silvopastoral system as an adaptive strategy against microclimate extremes in pasture areas.

This study aimed to assess the influence of the high biodiversity silvopastoral system (SPSnu) on the microclimate, pasture production, and pasture chemical composition. Microclimate variables and pasture production and chemical composition were measured in pared paddocks under SPSnu and treeless pasture (TLP) in a commercial farm during four seasons in Southern Brazil. SPSnu measurements were subdivided into two areas: around the nuclei (AN) and area inter-nuclei (IN). In the TLP paddocks, we plotted fictitious nuclei with the same areas and distributions of SPSnu, however without trees. For the microclimate measurements, these areas were noted when shaded or unshaded by the nuclei trees. In each season, the microclimate variables air temperature (AT, °C), relative humidity (RH, %), illuminance (Ilu, lux), wind speed (WS, m/s), and soil surface temperature (SST, °C) were measured. In addition, botanical composition (%), pasture production (kg/DM/ ha), and pasture chemical composition were evaluated. The SPSnu provided the lowest values of microclimate variables in all seasons (p < 0.05), except for the relative humidity. Winter had the highest thermal amplitude in the systems. The highest difference between SPSnu and TLP for AT (4.3 °C) and SST (5.2 °C) was measured during the hot seasons (spring and summer). In contrast, during cold seasons (autumn and winter) it observed highest thermal amplitude between SPSnu and TLP. Overall, the highest annual pasture production was observed in the SPSnu (p < 0.05). During the summer, the SPSnu areas showed the highest values of crude protein and dry matter (p < 0.05). During the winter, the TLP showed the lowest values (p < 0.05) of pasture production and dry matter. It was observed that SPSnu improved the microclimate at the pasture level, influencing pasture production and pasture chemical composition. The enhanced microclimate can partially mitigate some of the effects of climate change on pastoral agroecosystems, creating conditions for ecological rehabilitation of ecosystem processes and services. These conditions could be amplified to a biome level through a payment for ecosystem services program.

A systematic review of the effects of silvopastoral system on thermal environment and dairy cows' behavioral and physiological responses.

Does the silvopastoral system (SPS) promote a satisfactory thermal environment for dairy cows to perform their natural behaviors and perform a suitable thermoregulatory function? To answer this, peer-reviewed articles, written in English and evaluating the effects of silvopastoral systems on thermal environment, dairy cows' behavior, and physiology were used in this systematic review; additionally, a bibliometric approach was performed. Web of Science and Google Scholar were used to compile the literature. The resulting articles (1448) underwent a 4-step appraisal process and resulted in 19 articles that fitted our inclusion criteria. Microclimate variables and thermal comfort indicators were the most researched topics (discussed in 89% of studies); 47% of studies addressed cattle behavior and 36% physiological responses. Our review highlights different benefits of silvopastoral systems for grazing dairy cows. For example, the SPS provides a more comfortable thermal environment than treeless pasture, which increases feeding behaviors; furthermore, dairy cows in SPS show lower drinking events, surface temperature, and respiratory rate than cows raised in treeless pasture. However, for nine of the variables related to cows' behavior (e.g., resting, rumination) and physiology responses (e.g., internal temperature), the results of the studies were unclear. Furthermore, behaviors associated with lying down (e.g., idling and rumination) and milk production in SPS were explored only in six and two studies, respectively. These findings provide consistent evidence that the silvopastoral systems are beneficial to thermal comfort of dairy cows; nonetheless, the effect on cows' behavioral and physiological responses is still scarce and unclear.

Tree Effects on Coffee Leaf Rust at Field and Landscape Scales.

Although integrating trees into agricultural systems (i.e., agroforestry systems) provides many valuable ecosystem services, the trees can also interact with plant diseases. We demonstrate that a detailed understanding of how plant diseases interact with trees in agroforestry systems is necessary to identify key tree canopy characteristics, leaf traits, spatial arrangements, and management options that can help control plant diseases at different spatial scales. We focus our analysis on how trees affect coffee leaf rust, a major disease affecting one of the world's most significant crop commodities. We show that trees can both promote and discourage the development of coffee leaf rust at the plot scale via microclimate modifications in the understory. Based on our understanding of the role of tree characteristics in shaping the microclimate, we identify several canopy characteristics and leaf traits that can help manage coffee leaf rust at the plot scale: namely, thin canopies with high openness, short base height, horizontal branching, and small, dentate leaves. In contrast, at the edge of coffee farms, having large trees with high canopy volume and small, thick, waxy leaves is more useful to reduce throughflow wind speeds and intercept the airborne dispersal of urediniospores, an important consideration to control disease at the landscape scale. Seasonal pruning can help shape trees into the desired form, and trees can be spatially arranged to optimize desired effects. This case study demonstrates the added value of combining process-based epidemiology studies with functional trait ecology to improve disease management in agroforestry systems.

Greenhouse gas mitigation potential in smallholder agroecosystem of southern Ethiopia.

In developing countries, it is critical that novel and swift strategies are devised to help direct and prioritize potential greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation activities. The Carbon Benefit Project (CBP) analysis tool is a modular, web-based system that allows a consistent comparison of various projects by providing a standardized GHG benefits protocol. In this study, we used the CBP tool to estimate the GHG mitigation potential of the agriculture, forestry, and other land uses (AFOLU) sector and prioritize components for their GHG benefits in three districts of Wolaita Zone, southern Ethiopia. The study area is 90,731 ha of which about 2% was covered by forest, 7% by grassland, 78% by annual crops, 12% by home garden and 1% by settlements. The livestock population in the study area was 512,622 heads. Using the CBP's Detailed Assessment, we estimated mitigation potential in the AFOLU consisting of different managements strategies for a period between 2016 and 2030 in the smallholder agricultural landscape. The results showed an overall GHG benefit of 1,725,052 (±5%) Mg CO2e from the projected scenario in the study area. The GHG benefit was in the order of biomass C (683,757 Mg CO2e) > soil C (619,210 Mg CO2e) > livestock (408,981 Mg CO2e) illustrating the greater mitigation potential of trees in different systems. The soil C plus biomass C was high in agroforestry systems, and this component had the highest priority for GHG mitigation. This was followed by high enteric methane emission reduction in the livestock category. The GHG emission from manure increased by 71,633 Mg CO2e in the project because manure was not managed. The surprisingly low GHG benefit of the forest was primarily because of its low land cover (i.e., about 2%) in the agroecosystem. Despite the low GHG benefit in the cropland from best management practices, the improved soil quality in it can affect GHG benefits from other land uses by contributing to their conservation through food security. Thus, a comprehensive project may be a viable strategy in a mitigation effort at the agroecosystem level because of the interactions amongst the components. The CBP analysis tool is useful in prioritizing mitigation activities and may be an option to quantify GHG benefits if studies collate Teir 2 factors in data scarce areas.

Effects of different soil moisture on the growth, quality, and root rot disease of organic Panax notoginseng cultivated under pine forests.

The under-forest economy in the agroforestry system can improve land use efficiency, protect ecological environment, and promote arable land sustainable development. However, the effects of soil moisture in the forest and irrigation strategies on the healthy growth of intercropping crops are still incomplete. Here, considering the organic Panax notoginseng cultivated under pine forests (PPF) as the research object, we explored the effects of different soil moisture on the physiological state, yield, quality and disease occurrence of PPF. Our results suggested that 80-85% and 95-100% field capacity (FC) treatments were more conducive to increased photosynthetic rate and biomass accumulation of PPF, but 50-55% and 65-70% FC treatments were more conducive to the accumulation of saponins in PPF leaves. Notably, the root rot index of PPF was highest under 95-100% FC (19.51) treatment, significantly higher than that under 65-70% FC (8.44) and 80-85% FC (10.21) treatments. Further, the rhizosphere microorganisms of PPF under different soil moisture treatments were sequenced, and the sequencing data analysis revealed that high soil moisture (95-100% FC) could destroy the microbial diversity balance and cause the accumulation of pathogens (Fusarium oxysporum and Ilyonectria radicicola), leading to a high incidence of root rot. The incidence of PPF root rot was negatively correlated with rhizosphere microbial diversity. Overall, our results highlight that the quantitative irrigation (80-85% FC) is conducive to maintaining the balance between yield, saponin content and disease occurrence of PPF, providing a practical basis for PPF irrigation strategy and promoting the sustainable development of PPF agroforestry system.

Agroforestry Adoption Decision in Green Growth Initiative Programs: Key Lessons from the Billion Trees Afforestation Project (BTAP).

Adoption of agroforestry in the early spring under the green growth initiative programs, such as the Billion Trees Afforestation Project, has positively impacted crop productivity and plantation success in Pakistan. However, the timely adoption decision of agroforestry in the Hindu Kush Himalayan is still low, particularly among smallholders. Using a mixed-method approach, we examine the factors influencing smallholder households and community-level timely agroforestry adoption decisions. Findings show that the early and later decision-makers farmers had agricultural lands on riversides and primarily adopted agroforestry to protect their crops from devastating effects of winds and floods. In contrast, late adoption decision-makers adopted agroforestry for income diversification. Results of our logit model show that several household and community-level factors influence smallholders' timely adoption of agroforestry. The factors that positively affect the timely adoption of agroforestry include age-related factors, education, and the establishment/existence of functional community-based organizations. In contrast, political conflicts and tenure insecurity negatively affect smallholders' timely adoption of agroforestry. In-depth interviews with Village Development Committees members revealed that terrace farming, farms on riversides, communities without access to other energy sources, population growth, and low farm acreage ensured the timely adoption of agroforestry. The policy recommendations include strengthening collaborative efforts among community members, especially engaging educated old-aged farmers (elders of traditional communities) to increase adoption rates and land tenure security to ensure timely agroforestry adoption under the newly launched 10-BTAP.

Biomass, carbon stock, CO2 mitigation and carbon credits of coffee-based multitier cropping model in Central India.

The present work was conducted in the forest-based ecosystem of Chhattisgarh in order to assess the varietal performance of coffee varieties along with silver oak in terms of growth, biomass, and carbon dynamics. Five coffee varieties were planted in silver oak shade in a randomized block design with four replications. The aim of the present investigation is to assess the economic and ecological feasibility of forest-based coffee plantations in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh. Findings reflect the maximum under-storied plant height in Chandragiri Dwarf (1.85 m) which was at par with CxR (1.82 m) and San Ramon (1.71 m). The maximum above and below-ground carbon stock (48.40 and 12.09 Mg ha-1, respectively), as well as carbon dioxide (CO2) mitigation (177.63 and 44.41 Mg ha-1, respectively) from the under-storied coffee plantation, was recorded in CxR. In the upper-storied plantation, the above and below-ground biomass of silver oak recorded the maximum carbon stock (201.24 and 50.31 Mg ha-1, respectively) and CO2 mitigation (738.54 and 184.63 Mg ha-1) in S-8 intercropped lines. The highest value of carbon credit was recorded under the coffee variety S-8 and silver oak agroecosystem. The S-8, CxR, and Chandragiri Dwarf varieties performed quite well in terms of the expected value of carbon credit.