A Paleogenomic Reconstruction of the Deep Population History of the Andes.

There are many unanswered questions about the population history of the Central and South Central Andes, particularly regarding the impact of large-scale societies, such as the Moche, Wari, Tiwanaku, and Inca. We assembled genome-wide data on 89 individuals dating from ∼9,000-500 years ago (BP), with a particular focus on the period of the rise and fall of state societies. Today's genetic structure began to develop by 5,800 BP, followed by bi-directional gene flow between the North and South Highlands, and between the Highlands and Coast. We detect minimal admixture among neighboring groups between ∼2,000-500 BP, although we do detect cosmopolitanism (people of diverse ancestries living side-by-side) in the heartlands of the Tiwanaku and Inca polities. We also highlight cases of long-range mobility connecting the Andes to Argentina and the Northwest Andes to the Amazon Basin. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Holocene variations in Lake Titicaca water level and their implications for sociopolitical developments in the central Andes.

Holocene climate in the high tropical Andes was characterized by both gradual and abrupt changes, which disrupted the hydrological cycle and impacted landscapes and societies. High-resolution paleoenvironmental records are essential to contextualize archaeological data and to evaluate the sociopolitical response of ancient societies to environmental variability. Middle-to-Late Holocene water levels in Lake Titicaca were reevaluated through a transfer function model based on measurements of organic carbon stable isotopes, combined with high-resolution profiles of other geochemical variables and paleoshoreline indicators. Our reconstruction indicates that following a prolonged low stand during the Middle Holocene (4000 to 2400 BCE), lake level rose rapidly ~15 m by 1800 BCE, and then increased another 3 to 6 m in a series of steps, attaining the highest values after ~1600 CE. The largest lake-level increases coincided with major sociopolitical changes reported by archaeologists. In particular, at the end of the Formative Period (500 CE), a major lake-level rise inundated large shoreline areas and forced populations to migrate to higher elevation, likely contributing to the emergence of the Tiwanaku culture.

Miocene surface uplift and orogenic evolution of the southern Andean Plateau (central Puna), northwestern Argentina.

We present stable hydrogen-isotope analyses of volcanic glass ([Formula: see text]Dg) and radiometric ages (U-Pb zircon, U-Th calcite, AMS14C) from deformed sedimentary deposits in the vicinity of the intermontane Pocitos Basin in the central Puna of the Andean Plateau at about 24.5°S. Our results demonstrate 2-km surface uplift since the middle to late Miocene and protracted shortening that persists until the present day, while other sectors of the Puna show evidence for tectonically neutral and/or extensional settings. These findings are at odds with previous studies suggesting near-modern elevations (4 km) of the Puna Plateau since the late Eocene and formation of the intermontane Miocene Arizaro-Pocitos Basin associated with gravitational foundering of a dense lithosphere. Geophysical and geochemical data support the removal of continental lithosphere beneath the Puna, but the timing and mechanisms by which this removal occurs have remained controversial. We hypothesize that intermontane basin formation in the central Puna is the result of crustal shortening since about 20 Ma, followed by rapid surface uplift, likely related to lithospheric delamination.

Caught in the Act: Incipient Speciation at the Southern limit of Viburnum in the Central Andes.

A fundamental objective of evolutionary biology is to understand the origin of independently evolving species. Phylogenetic studies of species radiations rarely are able to document ongoing speciation; instead, modes of speciation, entailing geographic separation and/or ecological differentiation, are posited retrospectively. The Oreinotinus clade of Viburnum has radiated recently from north to south through the cloud forests of Mexico and Central America to the Central Andes. Our analyses support a hypothesis of incipient speciation in Oreinotinus at the southern edge of its geographic range, from central Peru to northern Argentina. Although several species and infraspecific taxa of have been recognized in this area, multiple lines of evidence and analytical approaches (including analyses of phylogenetic relationships, genetic structure, leaf morphology, and climatic envelopes) favor the recognition of just a single species, V. seemenii. We show that what has previously been recognized as V. seemenii f. minor has recently occupied the drier Tucuman-Bolivian forest region from Samaipata in Bolivia to Salta in northern Argentina. Plants in these populations form a well-supported clade with a distinctive genetic signature and they have evolved smaller, narrower leaves. We interpret this as the beginning of a within-species divergence process that has elsewhere in the neotropics resulted repeatedly in Viburnum species with a particular set of leaf ecomorphs. Specifically, the southern populations are in the process of evolving the small, glabrous, and entire leaf ecomorph that has evolved in four other montane areas of endemism. As predicted based on our studies of leaf ecomorphs in Chiapas, Mexico, these southern populations experience generally drier conditions, with large diurnal temperature fluctuations. In a central portion of the range of V. seemenii, characterized by wetter climatic conditions, we also document what may be the initial differentiation of the leaf ecomorph with larger, pubescent, and toothy leaves. The emergence of these ecomorphs thus appears to be driven by adaptation to subtly different climatic conditions in separate geographic regions, as opposed to parapatric differentiation along elevational gradients as suggested by Viburnum species distributions in other parts of the neotropics.

Climate change-induced population pressure drives high rates of lethal violence in the Prehispanic central Andes.

Understanding the influence of climate change and population pressure on human conflict remains a critically important topic in the social sciences. Long-term records that evaluate these dynamics across multiple centuries and outside the range of modern climatic variation are especially capable of elucidating the relative effect of­and the interaction between­climate and demography. This is crucial given that climate change may structure population growth and carrying capacity, while both climate and population influence per capita resource availability. This study couples paleoclimatic and demographic data with osteological evaluations of lethal trauma from 149 directly accelerator mass spectrometry 14C-dated individuals from the Nasca highland region of Peru. Multiple local and supraregional precipitation proxies are combined with a summed probability distribution of 149 14C dates to estimate population dynamics during a 700-y study window. Counter to previous findings, our analysis reveals a precipitous increase in violent deaths associated with a period of productive and stable climate, but volatile population dynamics. We conclude that favorable local climate conditions fostered population growth that put pressure on the marginal and highly circumscribed resource base, resulting in violent resource competition that manifested in over 450 y of internecine warfare. These findings help support a general theory of intergroup violence, indicating that relative resource scarcity­whether driven by reduced resource abundance or increased competition­can lead to violence in subsistence societies when the outcome is lower per capita resource availability.

Safety and Immunogenicity of an Andes Virus DNA Vaccine by Needle-Free Injection: A Randomized, Controlled Phase 1 Study.

BACKGROUND: Andes virus (ANDV), a rodent-borne hantavirus, causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). The safety and immunogenicity of a novel ANDV DNA vaccine was evaluated. METHODS: Phase 1, double-blind, dose-escalation trial randomly assigned 48 healthy adults to placebo or ANDV DNA vaccine delivered via needle-free jet injection. Cohorts 1 and 2 received 2 mg of DNA or placebo in a 3-dose (days 1, 29, 169) or 4-dose (days 1, 29, 57, 169) schedule, respectively. Cohorts 3 and 4 received 4 mg of DNA or placebo in the 3-dose and 4-dose schedule, respectively. Subjects were monitored for safety and neutralizing antibodies by pseudovirion neutralization assay (PsVNA50) and plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT50). RESULTS: While 98% and 65% of subjects had at least 1 local or systemic solicited adverse event (AE), respectively, most AEs were mild or moderate; no related serious AEs were detected. Cohorts 2, 3, and 4 had higher seroconversion rates than cohort 1 and seropositivity of at least 80% by day 197, sustained through day 337. PsVNA50 geometric mean titers were highest for cohort 4 on and after day 197. CONCLUSIONS: This first-in-human candidate HPS vaccine trial demonstrated that an ANDV DNA vaccine was safe and induced a robust, durable immune response. Clinical Trials Registration. NCT03682107.

An Elevational Phylogeographic Diversity Gradient in Neotropical Birds Is Decoupled from Speciation Rates.

AbstractA key question about macroevolutionary speciation rates is whether they are controlled by microevolutionary processes operating at the population level. For example, does spatial variation in population genetic differentiation underlie geographical gradients in speciation rates? Previous work suggests that speciation rates increase with elevation in Neotropical birds, but underlying population-level gradients remain unexplored. Here, we characterize elevational phylogeographic diversity between montane and lowland birds in the megadiverse Andes-Amazonian system and assess its relationship to speciation rates to evaluate the link between population-level differentiation and species-level diversification. We aggregated and georeferenced nearly 7,000 mitochondrial DNA sequences across 103 species or species complexes in the Andes and Amazonia and used these sequences to describe phylogeographic differentiation across both regions. Our results show increased levels of both discrete and continuous metrics of population structure in the Andean mountains compared with the Amazonian lowlands. However, higher levels of population differentiation do not predict higher rates of speciation in our dataset. Multiple potential factors may lead to our observed decoupling of initial population divergence and speciation rates, including the ephemerality of incipient species and the multifaceted nature of the speciation process, as well as methodological challenges associated with estimating rates of population differentiation and speciation.

Extreme High-Elevation Mammal Surveys Reveal Unexpectedly High Upper Range Limits of Andean Mice.

AbstractIn the world's highest mountain ranges, uncertainty about the upper elevational range limits of alpine animals represents a critical knowledge gap regarding the environmental limits of life and presents a problem for detecting range shifts in response to climate change. Here we report results of mountaineering mammal surveys in the Central Andes, which led to the discovery of multiple species of mice living at extreme elevations that far surpass previously assumed range limits for mammals. We livetrapped small mammals from ecologically diverse sites spanning >6,700 m of vertical relief, from the desert coast of northern Chile to the summits of the highest volcanoes in the Andes. We used molecular sequence data and whole-genome sequence data to confirm the identities of species that represent new elevational records and to test hypotheses regarding species limits. These discoveries contribute to a new appreciation of the environmental limits of vertebrate life.

The role of introgressive hybridization in shaping the geographically isolated gene pools of wax palm populations (genus Ceroxylon).

The speciation continuum is the process by which genetic groups diverge until they reach reproductive isolation. It has become common in the literature to show that this process is gradual and flickering, with possibly many instances of secondary contact and introgression after divergence has started. The level of divergence might vary among genomic regions due to, among others, the different forces and roles of selection played by the shared regions. Through hybrid capture, we sequenced ca. 4,000 nuclear regions in populations of six species of wax palms, five of which form a monophyletic group (genus Ceroxylon, Arecaceae: Ceroxyloideae). We show that in this group, the different populations show varying degrees of introgressive hybridization, and two of them are backcrosses of the other three 'pure' species. This is particularly interesting because these three species are dioecious, have a shared main pollinator, and have slightly overlapping reproductive seasons but highly divergent morphologies. Our work supports shows wax palms diverge under positive and background selection in allopatry, and hybridize due to secondary contact and inefficient reproductive barriers, which sustain genetic diversity. Introgressed regions are generally not under positive selection. Peripheral populations are backcrosses of other species; thus, introgressive hybridization is likely modulated by demographic effects rather than selective pressures. In general, these species might function as an 'evolutionary syngameon' where expanding, peripheral, small, and isolated populations maintain diversity by crossing with available individuals of other wax palms. In the Andean context, species can benefit from gained variation from a second taxon or the enhancement of population sizes by recreating a common genetic pool.

Hummingbird blood traits track oxygen availability across space and time.

Predictable trait variation across environments suggests shared adaptive responses via repeated genetic evolution, phenotypic plasticity or both. Matching of trait-environment associations at phylogenetic and individual scales implies consistency between these processes. Alternatively, mismatch implies that evolutionary divergence has changed the rules of trait-environment covariation. Here we tested whether species adaptation alters elevational variation in blood traits. We measured blood for 1217 Andean hummingbirds of 77 species across a 4600-m elevational gradient. Unexpectedly, elevational variation in haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]) was scale independent, suggesting that physics of gas exchange, rather than species differences, determines responses to changing oxygen pressure. However, mechanisms of [Hb] adjustment did show signals of species adaptation: Species at either low or high elevations adjusted cell size, whereas species at mid-elevations adjusted cell number. This elevational variation in red blood cell number versus size suggests that genetic adaptation to high altitude has changed how these traits respond to shifts in oxygen availability.

Human-to-Human Transmission of Andes Virus Modeled in Syrian Hamsters.

Several occurrences of human-to-human transmission of Andes virus, an etiological agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome, are documented. Syrian hamsters consistently model human hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome, yet neither transmission nor shedding has been investigated. We demonstrate horizontal virus transmission and show that Andes virus is shed efficiently from both inoculated and contact-infected hamsters.

Population Histories and Genomic Diversity of South American Natives.

South America is home to one of the most culturally diverse present-day native populations. However, the dispersion pattern, genetic substructure, and demographic complexity within South America are still poorly understood. Based on genome-wide data of 58 native populations, we provide a comprehensive scenario of South American indigenous groups considering the genomic, environmental, and linguistic data. Clear patterns of genetic structure were inferred among the South American natives, presenting at least four primary genetic clusters in the Amazonian and savanna regions and three clusters in the Andes and Pacific coast. We detected a cline of genetic variation along a west-east axis, contradicting a hard Andes-Amazon divide. This longitudinal genetic variation seemed to have been shaped by both serial population bottlenecks and isolation by distance. Results indicated that present-day South American substructures recapitulate ancient macroregional ancestries and western Amazonia groups show genetic evidence of cultural exchanges that led to language replacement in precontact times. Finally, demographic inferences pointed to a higher resilience of the western South American groups regarding population collapses caused by the European invasion and indicated precontact population reductions and demic expansions in South America.

Demographic and spatially explicit landscape genomic analyses in a tropical oak reveal the impacts of late Quaternary climate change on Andean montane forests.

The tropical Andes are one of the most important biodiversity hotspots on Earth, yet our understanding of how their biotas have responded to Quaternary climatic oscillations is extraordinarily limited and the alternative models proposed to explain their demographic dynamics have been seldom formally evaluated. Here, we test the hypothesis that the interplay between the spatial configuration of geographical barriers to dispersal and elevational displacements driven by Quaternary cooling-warming cycles has shaped the demographic trajectories of montane oak forests (Quercus humboldtii) from the Colombian Andes. Specifically, we integrate genomic data and environmental niche modelling at fine temporal resolution to test competing spatially explicit demographic and coalescent models, including scenarios considering (i) isotropic gene flow through the landscape, (ii) the hypothetical impact of contemporary barriers to dispersal (i.e., inter-Andean valleys), and (iii) distributional shifts of montane oak forests from the Last Glacial Maximum to the present. Although our data revealed a marked genetic fragmentation of montane oak forests, statistical support for isolation-with-migration models indicates that geographically separated populations from the different Andean Cordilleras regularly exchange gene flow. Accordingly, spatiotemporally explicit demographic analyses supported a model of flickering connectivity, with scenarios considering isotropic gene flow or currently unsuitable habitats as persistent barriers to dispersal providing a comparatively worse fit to empirical genomic data. Overall, these results emphasize the role of landscape heterogeneity on shaping spatial patterns of genomic variation in montane oak forests, rejecting the hypothesis of genetic continuity and supporting a significant impact of Quaternary climatic oscillations on their demographic trajectories.

Warming, drought, and disturbances lead to shifts in functional composition: A millennial-scale analysis for Amazonian and Andean sites.

Tropical forests are changing in composition and productivity, probably in response to changes in climate and disturbances. The responses to these multiple environmental drivers, and the mechanisms underlying the changes, remain largely unknown. Here, we use a functional trait approach on timescales of 10,000 years to assess how climate and disturbances influence the community-mean adult height, leaf area, seed mass, and wood density for eight lowland and highland forest landscapes. To do so, we combine data of eight fossil pollen records with functional traits and proxies for climate (temperature, precipitation, and El Niño frequency) and disturbances (fire and general disturbances). We found that temperature and disturbances were the most important drivers of changes in functional composition. Increased water availability (high precipitation and low El Niño frequency) generally led to more acquisitive trait composition (large leaves and soft wood). In lowland forests, warmer climates decreased community-mean height probably because of increased water stress, whereas in highland forests warmer climates increased height probably because of upslope migration of taller species. Disturbance increased the abundance of acquisitive, disturbance-adapted taxa with small seeds for quick colonization of disturbed sites, large leaves for light capture, and soft wood to attain fast height growth. Fire had weak effects on lowland forests but led to more stress-adapted taxa that are tall with fast life cycles and small seeds that can quickly colonize burned sites. Site-specific analyses were largely in line with cross-site analyses, except for varying site-level effects of El Niño frequency and fire activity, possibly because regional patterns in El Niño are not a good predictor of local changes, and charcoal abundances do not reflect fire intensity or severity. With future global changes, tropical Amazonian and Andean forests may transition toward shorter, drought- and disturbance-adapted forests in the lowlands but taller forests in the highlands.

Strategies of diaspore dispersal investment in Compositae: the case of the Andean highlands.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Understanding diaspore morphology and how much a species invests on dispersal appendages is key for improving our knowledge of dispersal in fragmented habitats. We investigate diaspore morphological traits in high-Andean Compositae and their main abiotic and biotic drivers and test whether they play a role in species distribution patterns across the naturally fragmented high-Andean grasslands. METHODS: We collected diaspore trait data for 125 Compositae species across 47 tropical high-Andean summits, focusing on achene length and pappus-to-achene length ratio, with the latter as a proxy of dispersal investment. We analysed the role of abiotic (temperature, elevation and latitude) and biotic factors (phylogenetic signal and differences between tribes) on diaspore traits and whether they are related to distribution patterns across the Andes, using phylogenomics, distribution modelling and community ecology analyses. KEY RESULTS: Seventy-five percent of the studied species show small achenes (length <3.3 mm) and 67% have high dispersal investment (pappus length at least two times the achene length). Dispersal investment increases with elevation, possibly to compensate for lower air density, and achene length increases towards the equator, where non-seasonal climate prevails. Diaspore traits show significant phylogenetic signal, and higher dispersal investment is observed in Gnaphalieae, Astereae and Senecioneae, which together represent 72% of our species. High-Andean-restricted species found across the tropical Andes have, on average, the pappus four times longer than the achene, a significantly higher dispersal investment than species present only in the northern Andes or only in the central Andes. CONCLUSIONS: Small achenes and high diaspore dispersal investment dominate among high-Andean Compositae, traits typical of mostly three tribes of African origin; but traits are also correlated with the environmental gradients within the high-Andean grasslands. Our results also suggest that diaspore dispersal investment is likely to shape species distribution patterns in naturally fragmented habitats.

Sensitivity of tropical montane birds to anthropogenic disturbance and management strategies for their conservation in agricultural landscapes.

Tropical montane bird communities are hypothesized to be highly sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance because species are adapted to a narrow range of environmental conditions and display high rates of endemism. We assessed avian sensitivity at regional and continental scales for a global epicenter of montane bird biodiversity, the tropical Andes. Using data from an intensive field study of cloud forest bird communities across 7 landscapes undergoing agricultural conversion in northern Peru (1800-3100 m, 2016-2017) and a pan-Andean synthesis of forest bird sensitivity, we developed management strategies for maintaining avian biodiversity in tropical countrysides and examined how environmental specialization predicts species-specific sensitivity to disturbance. In Peru, bird communities occupying countryside habitats contained 29-93% fewer species compared with those in forests and were compositionally distinct due to high levels of species turnover. Fragments of mature forest acted as reservoirs for forest bird diversity, especially when large or surrounded by mixed successional vegetation. In high-intensity agricultural plots, an addition of 10 silvopasture trees or 10% more fencerows per hectare increased species richness by 18-20%. Insectivores and frugivores were most sensitive to disturbance: abundance of 40-70% of species declined in early successional vegetation and silvopasture. These results were supported by our synthesis of 816 montane bird species studied across the Andes. At least 25% of the species declined due to all forms of disturbance, and the percentage rose to 60% in agricultural landscapes. The most sensitive species were those with narrow elevational ranges and small global range sizes, insectivores and carnivores, and species with specialized trophic niches. We recommend protecting forest fragments, especially large ones, and increasing connectivity through the maintenance of early successional vegetation and silvopastoral trees that increase avian diversity in pastures. We provide lists of species-specific sensitivities to anthropogenic disturbance to inform conservation status assessments of Andean birds.

Sensibilidad de aves montanas a perturbaciones antropogénicas y estrategias de manejo para su conservación en paisajes agrícolas Resumen Se ha hipotetizado que las comunidades de aves tropicales montanas son sumamente sensibles a la perturbación antropogénica porque las especies están adaptadas a una reducida gama de condiciones ambientales y tienen altas tasas de endemismo. Evaluamos la sensibilidad aviar a escalas regional y continental para un epicentro global de biodiversidad de aves montanas, los Andes tropicales. Utilizando datos de un estudio intensivo de campo de comunidades de aves de bosques nublados en 7 paisajes bajo conversión agrícola en el norte de Perú (1800 - 3100 m, 2016-2017) y una síntesis pan-Andina de sensibilidad de aves de bosque, desarrollamos estrategias de manejo para el mantenimiento de la biodiversidad de aves en campiñas tropicales y examinamos cómo la especialización ambiental predice la sensibilidad de cada especie a la perturbación. Las comunidades de aves ocupando hábitats campestres tropicales en Perú contenían 29 - 93% menos especies en comparación con las de bosques y tuvieron una composición distinta debido a los altos niveles de recambio de especies. Los fragmentos de bosque maduro fungieron como reservorios para la diversidad de aves de bosque, especialmente cuando eran extensos y estaban rodeados por vegetación secundaria mixta. En las parcelas con actividad agrícola intensiva, la adición de 10 árboles silvopastoriles o 10% más de cercos por hectárea incrementó la riqueza de especies en 18 - 20%. Las insectívoras y frugívoras fueron más sensibles a la perturbación: la abundancia de 40 - 70% de especies declinó en la vegetación secundaria temprana y en la silvopastura. Estos resultados fueron sustentados por nuestra síntesis de 816 especies de aves montanas estudiadas en los Andes. Por lo menos 25% de estas especies declinaron debido a todas las formas de perturbación, y el porcentaje incrementó a 60% en paisajes agrícolas. Las especies más sensibles fueron aquellas con rangos altitudinales estrechos y extensiones de distribución pequeñas, las insectívoras y carnívoras y las especies con nichos tróficos especializados. Recomendamos la protección de fragmentos de bosque, especialmente los extensos, y el incremento de la conectividad mediante el mantenimiento de vegetación secundaria temprana y árboles silvopastoriles que incrementan la diversidad de aves en los pastizales. Proporcionamos listas de la sensibilidad de cada especie a la perturbación antropogénica para contribuir a las evaluaciones del estatus de conservación de aves Andinas.

Hummingbird community structure and nectar resources modulate the response of interspecific competition to forest conversion.

On-going land-use change has profound impacts on biodiversity by filtering species that cannot survive in disturbed landscapes and potentially altering biotic interactions. In particular, how land-use change reshapes biotic interactions remains an open question. Here, we used selectivity experiments with nectar feeders in natural and converted forests to test the direct and indirect effects of land-use change on resource competition in Andean hummingbirds along an elevational gradient. Selectivity was defined as the time hummingbirds spent at high resource feeders when feeders with both low and high resource values were offered in the presence of other hummingbird species. Selectivity approximates the outcome of interspecific competition (i.e., the resource intake across competing species); in the absence of competition, birds should exhibit higher selectivity. We evaluated the indirect effect of forest conversion on selectivity, as mediated by morphological dissimilarity and flower resource abundance, using structural equation models. We found that forest conversion influenced selectivity at low and mid-elevations, but the influence of morphological dissimilarity and resource availability on selectivity varied between these elevations. At mid-elevation, selectivity was more influenced by the presence of morphologically similar competitors than by resource abundance while at low-elevation resource abundance was a more important predictor of selectivity. Our results suggest that selectivity is influenced by forest conversion, but that the drivers of these changes vary across elevation, highlighting the importance of considering context-dependent variation in the composition of resources and competitors when studying competition.

Topsoil and subsoil bacterial community assemblies across different drainage conditions in a mountain environment.

BACKGROUND: High mountainous environments are of particular interest as they play an essential role for life and human societies, while being environments which are highly vulnerable to climate change and land use intensification. Despite this, our knowledge of high mountain soils in South America and their microbial community structure is strikingly scarce, which is of more concern considering the large population that depends on the ecosystem services provided by these areas. Conversely, the Central Andes, located in the Mediterranean region of Chile, has long been studied for its singular flora, whose diversity and endemism has been attributed to the particular geological history and pronounced environmental gradients in short distances. Here, we explore soil properties and microbial community structure depending on drainage class in a well-preserved Andean valley on the lower alpine vegetation belt (~2500 m a.s.l.) at 33.5˚S. This presents an opportunity to determine changes in the overall bacterial community structure across different types of soils and their distinct layers in a soil depth profile of a highly heterogeneous environment. METHODS: Five sites closely located (<1.5 km) and distributed in a well preserved Andean valley on the lower alpine vegetation belt (~2500 m a.s.l.) at 33.5˚S were selected based on a pedological approach taking into account soil types, drainage classes and horizons. We analyzed 113 soil samples using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to describe bacterial abundance, taxonomic composition, and co-occurrence networks. RESULTS: Almost 18,427 Amplicon Sequence Variant (ASVs) affiliated to 55 phyla were detected. The bacterial community structure within the same horizons were very similar validating the pedological sampling approach. Bray-Curtis dissimilarity analysis revealed that the structure of bacterial communities in superficial horizons (topsoil) differed from those found in deep horizons (subsoil) in a site-specific manner. However, an overall closer relationship was observed between topsoil as opposed to between subsoil microbial communities. Alpha diversity of soil bacterial communities was higher in topsoil, which also showed more bacterial members interacting and with higher average connectivity compared to subsoils. Finally, abundances of specific taxa could be considered as biological markers in the transition from topsoil to subsoil horizons, like Fibrobacterota, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota for shallower soils and Chloroflexi, Latescibacterota and Nitrospirota for deeper soils. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate the importance of the soil drainage conditions for the bacterial community composition, suggesting that information of both structure and their possible ecological relationships, might be useful in clarifying the location of the edge of the topsoil-subsoil transition in mountainous environments.

Artificial cranial deformation in Tiwanaku, Bolivia.

PURPOSE: Herein lies a brief historical review of the practice of artificial cranial deformation (ACD) in Tiwanaku, Bolivia, a pre-Columbian archeological ruin once regarded as one of the most powerful pre-Inca regions whose influence extended into present-day Peru and Chile from 600 to 1000 AD. We describe the history, purpose, and implications of ACD from both a neuroanatomical and cultural perspective. METHODS: A literature review was conducted through PubMed on the history of artificial cranial deformation in South America, concentrating on the Tiwanaku region. The authors searched all available data with no specific time reference, using the mentioned keywords: ACD, neuroanatomical implications of ACD, cultural and social functions of ACD, Tiwanaku society, and Andean civilization. RESULTS: Early Andean civilization was hierarchical and stratified. In Tiwanaku, the practice of ACD served to delineate one's social class, caste, lineage, and vocation. This was especially useful for warriors, who distinguished their fellow combatants from insurgents by differences in their cranial structure. ACD was usually conducted within the first few months of an infant's life before morphogenetic features became permanent. Two popular cranial styles-tabular and annular-were achieved by applying various mechanical apparatus and resulted in several cranial shapes (conical, box-like, flattened, etc.). Neuroanatomically, each deformation technique and the duration for which mechanical stress was applied influenced the solidification of cranial bones and shaped the frontal, occipital, parietal, and temporal bones differently. Cognitive deficits and plagiocephalic defects were recorded in limitation and may have been overlooked as the era's occupational demands were more labor-intensive than knowledge-driven. CONCLUSION: In Tiwanaku, the custom of ACD was used to demonstrate group identity, with alterations of the cranial shape corresponding to a particular headdress. ACD was used to distinguish an individual's social identity, separating different groups of society into castes, classes, and slaves (Brain, 1979). The custom has also been used to mark territory and emphasize ethnic differences among groups, with potential cognitive implications that were largely unrecorded.

Early specialized maritime and maize economies on the north coast of Peru.

We assess diet and economies of middle Holocene (∼7,500 to 4,000 calibrated [cal] B.P.) humans at coexisting mound sites (Huaca Prieta and Paredones) in north coastal Peru and document regular consumption of maize by ∼6,500 to 6,000 cal B.P. and its earliest use as a staple food in this area of the Andes between 5,000 and 4,500 cal B.P. Stable isotope data from enamel carbonates and dentin collagen (childhood diet) and dental microwear texture analysis (adult diet) demonstrate dietary and economic specialization. Previous studies revealed maize and mixed-food refuse at both sites, but this study documents actual food consumption, showing that these communities situated a few hundred meters apart had significantly distinct diets in childhood and adulthood. Huaca Prieta focused on marine resources, although there are some contributions from terrestrial meat. Paredones individuals primarily consumed maize during childhood (up to 70% of the juvenile diet), as shown by δ13C values, apatite-collagen spacing, and discriminant analysis of δ13Ccoll, δ13Ccarb, and δ15N values. Maize was likely used as a weaning food (e.g., gruel and/or chicha-a maize beverage), hinting at the significant role of breastfeeding mothers, weanling infants, and children in the development of maize as a staple crop. Additionally, dental microwear data show Paredones adult diets are high in abrasives, potentially from maize processing. The distinct foodways at these neighboring sites result from and also reflect their social and political distinctions. These differences in food production, distribution, and consumption generated opportunities for exchange, an interaction that bound them together in mutual benefit.