m6 A-mediated regulation of crop development and stress responses.

Dynamic chemical modifications in eukaryotic messenger RNAs (mRNAs) constitute an essential layer of gene regulation, among which N6 -methyladenosine (m6 A) was unveiled to be the most abundant. m6 A functionally modulates important biological processes in various mammals and plants through the regulation of mRNA metabolism, mainly mRNA degradation and translation efficiency. Physiological functions of m6 A methylation are diversified and affected by intricate sequence contexts and m6 A machineries. A number of studies have dissected the functional roles and the underlying mechanisms of m6 A modifications in regulating plant development and stress responses. Recently, it was demonstrated that the human FTO-mediated plant m6 A removal caused dramatic yield increases in rice and potato, indicating that modulation of m6 A methylation could be an efficient strategy for crop improvement. In this review, we summarize the current progress concerning the m6 A-mediated regulation of crop development and stress responses, and provide an outlook on the potential application of m6 A epitranscriptome in the future improvement of crops.

Comprehensive study and multipurpose role of the CLV3/ESR-related (CLE) genes family in plant growth and development.

The CLAVATA3/endosperm surrounding region-related (CLE) is one of the most important signaling peptides families in plants. These peptides signaling are common in the cell to cell communication and control various physiological and developmental processes, that is cell differentiation and proliferation, self-incompatibility, and the defense response. The CLE signaling systems are conserved across the plant kingdom but have a diverse mode of action in various developmental processes in different species. In this review, we concise various methods of peptides identification, structure, and molecular identity of the CLE family, the developmental role of CLE genes/peptides in plants, environmental stimuli, and CLE family and some other novel progress in CLE genes/peptides in various crops, and so forth. According to previous literature, about 1,628 CLE genes were identified in land plants, which deeply explained the tale of plant development. Nevertheless, some important queries need to be addressed to get clear insights into the CLE gene family in other organisms and their role in various physiological and developmental processes. Furthermore, we summarized the power of the CLE family around the environment as well as bifunctional activity and the crystal structure recognition mechanism of CLE peptides by their receptors and CLE clusters functions. We strongly believed that the discovery of the CLE family in other organisms would provide a significant breakthrough for future revolutionary and functional studies.

Circadian Rhythms in Legumes: What Do We Know and What Else Should We Explore?

The natural timing devices of organisms, commonly known as biological clocks, are composed of specific complex folding molecules that interact to regulate the circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms, the changes or processes that follow a 24-h light-dark cycle, while endogenously programmed, are also influenced by environmental factors, especially in sessile organisms such as plants, which can impact ecosystems and crop productivity. Current knowledge of plant clocks emanates primarily from research on Arabidopsis, which identified the main components of the circadian gene regulation network. Nonetheless, there remain critical knowledge gaps related to the molecular components of circadian rhythms in important crop groups, including the nitrogen-fixing legumes. Additionally, little is known about the synergies and trade-offs between environmental factors and circadian rhythm regulation, especially how these interactions fine-tune the physiological adaptations of the current and future crops in a rapidly changing world. This review highlights what is known so far about the circadian rhythms in legumes, which include major as well as potential future pulse crops that are packed with nutrients, particularly protein. Based on existing literature, this review also identifies the knowledge gaps that should be addressed to build a sustainable food future with the reputed "poor man's meat".

Is there potential to adapt soybean (Glycine max Merr.) to future [CO2]? An analysis of the yield response of 18 genotypes in free-air CO2 enrichment.

Rising atmospheric [CO2] is a uniform, global change that increases C3 photosynthesis and could offset some of the negative effects of global climate change on crop yields. Genetic variation in yield responsiveness to rising [CO2] would provide an opportunity to breed more responsive crop genotypes. A multi-year study of 18 soybean (Glycine max Merr.) genotypes was carried out to identify variation in responsiveness to season-long elevated [CO2] (550 ppm) under fully open-air replicated field conditions. On average across 18 genotypes, elevated [CO2] stimulated total above-ground biomass by 22%, but seed yield by only 9%, in part because most genotypes showed a reduction in partitioning of energy to seeds. Over four years of study, there was consistency from year to year in the genotypes that were most and least responsive to elevated [CO2], suggesting heritability of CO2 response. Further analysis of six genotypes did not reveal a photosynthetic basis for the variation in yield response. Although partitioning to seed was decreased, cultivars with the highest partitioning coefficient in current [CO2 ] also had the highest partitioning coefficient in elevated [CO2]. The results show the existence of genetic variation in soybean response to elevated [CO2], which is needed to breed soybean to the future atmospheric environment.

High night temperatures during grain number determination reduce wheat and barley grain yield: a field study.

Warm nights are a widespread predicted feature of climate change. This study investigated the impact of high night temperatures during the critical period for grain yield determination in wheat and barley crops under field conditions, assessing the effects on development, growth and partitioning crop-level processes driving grain number per unit area (GN). Experiments combined: (i) two contrasting radiation and temperature environments: late sowing in 2011 and early sowing in 2013, (ii) two well-adapted crops with similar phenology: bread wheat and two-row malting barley and (iii) two temperature regimes: ambient and high night temperatures. The night temperature increase (ca. 3.9 °C in both crops and growing seasons) was achieved using purpose-built heating chambers placed on the crop at 19:000 hours and removed at 7:00 hours every day from the third detectable stem node to 10 days post-flowering. Across growing seasons and crops, the average minimum temperature during the critical period ranged from 11.2 to 17.2 °C. Wheat and barley grain yield were similarly reduced under warm nights (ca. 7% °C(-1) ), due to GN reductions (ca. 6% °C(-1) ) linked to a lower number of spikes per m(2) . An accelerated development under high night temperatures led to a shorter critical period duration, reducing solar radiation capture with negative consequences for biomass production, GN and therefore, grain yield. The information generated could be used as a starting point to design management and/or breeding strategies to improve crop adaptation facing climate change.

Putting mechanisms into crop production models.

Crop growth models dynamically simulate processes of C, N and water balance on daily or hourly time-steps to predict crop growth and development and at season-end, final yield. Their ability to integrate effects of genetics, environment and crop management have led to applications ranging from understanding gene function to predicting potential impacts of climate change. The history of crop models is reviewed briefly, and their level of mechanistic detail for assimilation and respiration, ranging from hourly leaf-to-canopy assimilation to daily radiation-use efficiency is discussed. Crop models have improved steadily over the past 30-40 years, but much work remains. Improvements are needed for the prediction of transpiration response to elevated CO2 and high temperature effects on phenology and reproductive fertility, and simulation of root growth and nutrient uptake under stressful edaphic conditions. Mechanistic improvements are needed to better connect crop growth to genetics and to soil fertility, soil waterlogging and pest damage. Because crop models integrate multiple processes and consider impacts of environment and management, they have excellent potential for linking research from genomics and allied disciplines to crop responses at the field scale, thus providing a valuable tool for deciphering genotype by environment by management effects.

CropLife Europe Crop Development Database: An open-source, pan-European, harmonized crop development database for use in regulatory pesticide exposure modeling and risk assessment.

There is a regulatory need for crop development dates to assess current default values used within chemical exposure assessments as well as to justify refinements within risk assessments. However, a readily available pan-European crop phenology database covering key FOrum for the Co-ordination of pesticide fate models and their USe (FOCUS) crops and scenarios to meet this need is not currently available. Therefore, we describe the development of a harmonized, pan-European, CropLife Europe Crop Development Database (C2D2), that is fully aligned with this regulatory requirement utilizing efficacy trials data generated for regulatory submissions when registering plant protection products under Regulation (EU)1107/2009. Evaluation of C2D2 against an independent data set showed good agreement for equivalent time periods, crop growth stages, and geographical regions. We illustrate how this database can be used to evaluate existing default crop development dates mandated by regulatory agencies for use within exposure assessments. Despite the large data set compiled and the geographical coverage of C2D2, not all FOCUSsw/gw scenarios have sufficient data to facilitate comparison, with less significant scenarios, like FOCUSgw Porto, being underrepresented. For those scenarios with sufficient data, clear differences between C2D2 and crop development dates assumed in the FOCUS modeling framework (using the AppDate tool) are often indicated over many growth stages, suggesting that amendment of the existing representation of crop development within the risk assessment process may be required. C2D2 is freely available under a Creative Commons license to facilitate innovation in exposure science to allow for more accurate and realistic risk assessment leading to enhanced crop and environmental protection. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;00:1-15. © 2023 CropLife Europe (Corteva Agriscience) and The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Applications and Market of Micro-Organism-Based and Plant-Based Inputs in Brazilian Agriculture.

The use of plant-based and micro-organism-based biological inputs is a sustainable agricultural practice. It promotes a suitable and better utilization of non-renewable resources in the environment. The benefits of using micro-organisms are associated with direct and indirect mechanisms, mainly related to improvements in the absorption and availability of nutrients, resulting in a consequent impact on plant growth. The main benefits of using biochemical pesticides are the promotion of sustainability and the management of resistance to pests and diseases. Although the use of micro-organisms and botanical metabolites is a promising agricultural alternative, they are still primarily concentrated in grain crops. There is a huge opportunity to expand the plant-based and micro-organism-based biological inputs used in agriculture due to the wide range of mechanisms of action of those products. At a global level, several terminologies have been adopted to characterize biological inputs, but many terms used conflict with Brazilian legislation. This review will clarify the classes of biological inputs existing in Brazil as well as present the application and evolution of the market for microbiological and plant-based inputs.

Transcriptome Analyses in a Selected Gene Set Indicate Alternative Oxidase (AOX) and Early Enhanced Fermentation as Critical for Salinity Tolerance in Rice.

Plants subjected to stress need to respond rapidly and efficiently to acclimatize and survive. In this paper, we investigated a selected gene set potentially involved in early cell reprogramming in two rice genotypes with contrasting salinity tolerance (Pokkali tolerant and IR29 susceptible) in order to advance knowledge of early molecular mechanisms of rice in dealing with salt stress. Selected genes were evaluated in available transcriptomic data over a short period of 24 h and involved enzymes that avoid ROS formation (AOX, UCP and PTOX), impact ATP production (PFK, ADH and COX) or relate to the antioxidant system. Higher transcript accumulation of AOX (ROS balancing), PFK and ADH (alcohol fermentation) was detected in the tolerant genotype, while the sensitive genotype revealed higher UCP and PTOX transcript levels, indicating a predominant role for early transcription of AOX and fermentation in conferring salt stress tolerance to rice. Antioxidant gene analyses supported higher oxidative stress in IR29, with transcript increases of cytosolic CAT and SOD from all cell compartments (cytoplasm, peroxisome, chloroplast and mitochondria). In contrast, Pokkali increased mRNA levels from the AsA-GSH cycle as cytosolic/mitochondrial DHAR was involved in ascorbate recovery. In addition, these responses occurred from 2 h in IR29 and 10 h in Pokkali, indicating early but ineffective antioxidant activity in the susceptible genotype. Overall, our data suggest that AOX and ADH can play a critical role during early cell reprogramming for improving salt stress tolerance by efficiently controlling ROS formation in mitochondria. We discuss our results in relation to gene engineering and editing approaches to develop salinity-tolerant crops.

Manipulation of Barley Development and Flowering Time by Exogenous Application of Plant Growth Regulators.

Matching flowering time to the optimal flowering period in Mediterranean cropping zones is pivotal to maximize yield. Aside from variety selection and sowing date, growers have limited options to alter development in season. Plant hormones and growth regulators are used in perennial horticultural systems to manipulate development and floral initiation. In this study, a range of plant hormonal products were tested to analyze their effects on barley (Hordeum vulgare L) development by exogenous spray applications. Plants were grown in controlled conditions under long and short photoperiods with different vernalization treatments. The gibberellin (GA) products demonstrated the greatest potential for altering development. The GA inhibitor trinexapac-ethyl was able to delay the time to flowering in genetically divergent barley cultivars by up to 200 degree days under controlled conditions. A similar delay in flowering could be achieved via application at both early (GS13) and late (GS33) stages, with higher rates delaying flowering further. Notably, trinexapac-ethyl was able to extend the duration of pre-anthesis phases of development. By contrast, GA3 was unable to accelerate development under extreme short (8 h) or long (16 h) day lengths. There was also little evidence that GA3 could reproducibly accelerate development under intermediate 10-12 h day lengths. In addition, sprays of the cytokinin 6-benzyladenine (6-BA) were unable to reduce the vernalization requirement of the winter genotype Urambie. The present study provides baseline data for plant growth regulator treatments that delay cereal development. These treatments might be extended in field studies to align flowering of early sown crops to the optimal flowering period.

New function of Hypoxia-responsive unknown protein in enhanced resistance to biotic stress.

Submergence and waterlogging lead to significant reductions in crop productivity and trigger dramatic changes in gene expression of plant biotic/abiotic stress response. Several of the host factors are involved in low-oxygen stress that is induced by endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. Hypoxia-response unknown protein (HUP) has been found as a host factor of hypoxia screening but HUPs function largely is unknown. In this study, we found the Arabidopsis HUP26 gene which was conserved in different plant species and responded to various oxidative stress. HUP26 promoter analysis showed GUS activity in root and leaf tissues was significantly responsive to oxidative stress. HUP26-GFP is predominantly located in the cytoplasmic region. HUP26 overexpression results in altered enhanced pathogenesis-related gene 1 gene expression and reduced ion leakage levels compared with hup26 knockout and WT plants after inoculation with Pst DC3000. HUP26 overexpression transgenic plants showed improved resistance to Pst DC3000, but hup26 knockout plants exhibited increased susceptibility. Collectively, these results indicate that HUP26 plays important role in responses to various oxidative stress and confers biotic stress resistance. Engineering of HUP26 gene expression may represent a strategy to enhance biotic stress resistance of crops.

PhenoCams for Field Phenotyping: Using Very High Temporal Resolution Digital Repeated Photography to Investigate Interactions of Growth, Phenology, and Harvest Traits.

Understanding the interaction of plant growth with environmental conditions is crucial to increase the resilience of current cropping systems to a changing climate. Here, we investigate PhenoCams as a high-throughput approach for field phenotyping experiments to assess growth dynamics of many different genotypes simultaneously in high temporal (daily) resolution. First, we develop a method that extracts a daily phenological signal that is normalized for the different viewing geometries of the pixels within the images. Second, we investigate the extraction of the in season traits of early vigor, leaf area index (LAI), and senescence dynamic from images of a soybean (Glycine max) field phenotyping experiment and show that it is possible to rate early vigor, senescence dynamics, and track the LAI development between LAI 1 and 4.5. Third, we identify the start of green up, green peak, senescence peak, and end of senescence in the phenological signal. Fourth, we extract the timing of these points and show how this information can be used to assess the impact of phenology on harvest traits (yield, thousand kernel weight, and oil content). The results demonstrate that PhenoCams can track growth dynamics and fill the gap of high temporal monitoring in field phenotyping experiments.

Applications of CRISPR Technologies Across the Food Supply Chain.

The food industry faces a 2050 deadline for the advancement and expansion of the food supply chain to support the world's growing population. Improvements are needed across crops, livestock, and microbes to achieve this goal. Since 2005, researchers have been attempting to make the necessary strides to reach this milestone, but attempts have fallen short. With the introduction of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins, the food production field is now able to achieve some of its most exciting advancements since the Green Revolution. This review introduces the concept of applying CRISPR-Cas technology as a genome-editing tool for use in the food supply chain, focusing on its implementation to date in crop, livestock, and microbe production, advancement of products to market, and regulatory and societal hurdles that need to be overcome.

Applying stable isotopes to determine seasonal variability in evapotranspiration partitioning of winter wheat for optimizing agricultural management practices.

The partitioning of evapotranspiration (ET) into soil evaporation (E) and crop transpiration (T) is fundamental for accurately monitoring agro-hydrological processes, assessing crop productivity, and optimizing water management practices. In this study, the isotope tracing technique was used to partition ET of winter wheat under different irrigation (100, 160 and 240 mm) and fertilization (105, 210 and 315 kg N ha-1) treatments during the 2014 and 2015 growing seasons in Beijing, China. The correlations between seasonal ET partitioning and the leaf area index (LAI), grain yield, and water use efficiency (WUE, ratio of crop yield and ET) were investigated and agricultural management practices were optimized. The fraction of T in ET (FT) between the greening and harvest seasons was 0.82 on average and did not vary significantly among the treatments (p > 0.05). However, the values of FT during the individual growth periods ranged from 0.51 to 0.98, and they were remarkably distinct for all treatments. The seasonal variability in FT could be effectively explained via a power-law function of the LAI (FT = 0.61 LAI0.21, R2 = 0.66, p < 0.01). There was no significant relationship between FT and the grain yield or WUE (p > 0.05). The total T during the jointing-heading and heading-filling periods (Tjf) had significantly quadratic relationships with the crop yield and WUE (p < 0.01). Both the crop yield and the WUE had high values under the Tjf range of 117.5-155.8 mm. Furthermore, the WUE was higher under larger ratio of E in ET (FE) during the greening-jointing period and lower FE during the filling-harvest period. Two irrigations during the greening-jointing (20 mm) and heading-filling (80 mm) stages and one fertilization (105 kg ha-1 N) during the greening-jointing stage were determined as appropriate irrigation and fertilization schedules.

Understanding the role of protein interaction motifs in transcriptional regulators: implications for crop improvement.

Recently, the conjunction of disciplines such as developmental biology and proteomics enabled the dissection of diverse cellular processes, by analysis of their transcriptional regulatory pathways. In particular, it has been shown that transcription factor interactions play critical roles in the development of many complex traits and control cellular phenotypic plasticity, whereas protein phosphorylation modifications regulate protein activity at the posttranslational level. The present work posits that protein-protein interactions by functional motifs, as well as the phosphorylation state in these sites, are fundamental plant biological phenotype determinants, whose elucidation and understanding will allow manipulation of complex traits, thereby contributing to the design of novel methodologies for molecular breeders and plant physiologists.