Advances on the Experimental Research in Resistant Hypertension.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Resistant Hypertension (RH) poses a significant public health challenge, contributing to increased mortality, cardiovascular events and organ damage. Both clinical and experimental research are striving for higher standards in a translational manner to integrate new findings and confirm hypotheses. Considering that many are the aspects of RH that are still under investigation, this review aims to shed light on the advances made in experimental research concerning RH. It seeks to underscore the pivotal role of experimental studies in shaping clinical practices and also explore future perspectives. RECENT FINDINGS: It is important to emphasize the significance of experimental models, primarily for advancing our understanding: experimental models have greatly contributed to our comprehension of the underlying mechanisms in RH, including factors like sympathetic activation, endothelial dysfunction and structural vessel abnormalities. Secondly, for assessing treatment approaches: animal models have also played a crucial role in evaluating the potential effectiveness of diverse treatment approaches for RH. These encompass both pharmacological options, involving combinations of established drugs or novel pharmaceuticals, and non-pharmacological alternatives, which include surgical procedures like renal denervation, medical devices like baroreceptor stimulators, and lifestyle modifications. The most lacking component in translational research is the fact that there is no well-established animal model that perfectly replicates RH. Consequently, alternative strategies, including the combination of models, must be considered. What remains clear is that the development of animal models closely mimicking RH holds the promise of providing valuable insights into the essential mechanisms and responses necessary to combat or slow the global progression of RH.

How far are we from the best preclinical models of drug-resistant epilepsy?

Drug-resistant epilepsy has a high prevalence worldwide despite efforts such as the Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program conducted by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. It is indicated that drug-resistant epilepsy has various manifestations, and each pattern of manifestation can be modeled using precise experimental models. However, the experimental models used to identify new antiseizure medications to control drug-resistant epilepsy to date do not typically take into account various clinical factors associated with this condition. These factors include comorbidities, sex, age, frequency of seizures and neuroinflammation. It is accordingly necessary to identify the proper characteristics of each type of drug-resistant epilepsy to be mimicked in preclinical models. The use of preclinical models mimicking the characteristics of the different patterns of drug-resistant epilepsy will allow identifying new therapeutic strategies to control this disorder. It is also essential to consider the heterogeneity of clinical factors involved in the condition of drug resistance in epilepsy to get the proper preclinical models.

Assessment of nebivolol efficacy in experimental models of toxoplasmosis: insights into parasite burden reduction and neuronal protection.

This study investigates the efficacy of nebivolol (NBV) in experimental models of toxoplasmosis, focusing on parasite burden reduction and neuronal protection. In the acute model of experimental toxoplasmosis, Swiss mice infected with RH strain tachyzoites received oral NBV chlorhydrate doses of 2 mg/kg/day and 4 mg/kg/day for 8 days. Treatment with NBV significantly reduced parasite burden compared to vehicle and standard drug (PYR) groups. In the chronic model of experimental toxoplasmosis, C57/BL6 mice infected with the ME49 strain received NBV chlorhydrate 41 days post-infection and were evaluated after 10 days of treatment. NBV chlorhydrate effectively reduced cyst number and area, as well as bradyzoite burden compared to controls. Histological analysis demonstrated that NBV chlorhydrate preserved neuronal count, with the 4 mg/kg/day dose yielding counts similar to non-infected mice. Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences compared to control groups. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis revealed a significant reduction in iNOS labeling in the brains of mice treated with NBV chlorhydrate, indicating a decrease in nitric oxide production compared to control groups. These findings suggest NBV's potential as a promising candidate for toxoplasmosis treatment, highlighting its ability to reduce parasite burden and protect neuronal integrity. Further research is warranted to elucidate NBV's mechanisms of action and its clinical application in managing toxoplasmosis.

Isolation and primary culture of human abdominal aorta smooth muscle cells from brain-dead donors: an experimental model for vascular diseases.

Primary cell cultures are essential tools for elucidating the physiopathological mechanisms of the cardiovascular system. Therefore, a primary culture growth protocol of cardiovascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) obtained from human abdominal aortas was standardized. Ten abdominal aorta samples were obtained from patients diagnosed with brain death who were organ and tissue donors with family consent. After surgical ablation to capture the aorta, the aortic tissue was removed, immersed in a Custodiol® solution, and kept between 2 and 8 °C. In the laboratory, in a sterile environment, the tissue was fragmented and incubated in culture plates containing an enriched culture medium (DMEM/G/10% fetal bovine serum, L-glutamine, antibiotics and antifungals) and kept in an oven at 37 °C and 5% CO2. The aorta was removed after 24 h of incubation, and the culture medium was changed every six days for twenty days. Cell growth was confirmed through morphological analysis using an inverted optical microscope (Nikon®) and immunofluorescence for smooth muscle alpha-actin and nuclei. The development of the VSMCs was observed, and from the twelfth day, differentiation, long cytoplasmic projections, and adjacent cell connections occurred. On the twentieth day, the morphology of the VSMCs was confirmed by actin fiber immunofluorescence, which is a typical characteristic of VSMCs. The standardization allowed VSMC growth and the replicability of the in vitro test, providing a protocol that mimics natural physiological environments for a better understanding of the cardiovascular system. Its use is intended for investigation, tissue bioengineering, and pharmacological treatments.

The Off-Target Cardioprotective Mechanisms of Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors: An Overview.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), a novel class of glucose-lowering drugs, have revolutionized the management of heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection fraction, regardless of the presence of diabetes, and are currently incorporated in the heart failure guidelines. While these drugs have consistently demonstrated their ability to decrease heart failure hospitalizations in several landmark clinical trials, their cardioprotective effects are far from having been completely elucidated. In the past decade, a growing body of experimental research has sought to address the molecular and cellular mechanisms of SGLT2i in order to provide a better understanding of the off-target acute and chronic cardiac benefits, beyond the on-target renal effect responsible for blood glucose reduction. The present narrative review addresses the direct cardioprotective effects of SGLT2i, delving into the off-target mechanisms of the drugs currently approved for heart failure therapy, and provides insights into future perspectives.

Ubiquitin Carboxyl-Terminal Hydrolase L1 and Its Role in Parkinson's Disease.

Ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCHL1), also known as Parkinson's disease protein 5, is a highly expressed protein in the brain. It plays an important role in the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), where it acts as a deubiquitinase (DUB) enzyme. Being the smallest member of the UCH family of DUBs, it catalyzes the reaction of ubiquitin precursor processing and the cleavage of ubiquitinated protein remnants, thus maintaining the level of ubiquitin monomers in the brain cells. UCHL1 mutants, containing amino acid substitutions, influence catalytic activity and its aggregability. Some of them protect cells and transgenic mice in toxin-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) models. Studies of putative protein partners of UCHL1 revealed about sixty individual proteins located in all major compartments of the cell: nucleus, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane, mitochondria, and peroxisomes. These include proteins related to the development of PD, such as alpha-synuclein, amyloid-beta precursor protein, ubiquitin-protein ligase parkin, and heat shock proteins. In the context of the catalytic paradigm, the importance of these interactions is not clear. However, there is increasing understanding that UCHL1 exhibits various effects in a catalytically independent manner through protein-protein interactions. Since this protein represents up to 5% of the soluble protein in the brain, PD-related changes in its structure will have profound effects on the proteomes/interactomes in which it is involved. Growing evidence is accumulating that the role of UCHL1 in PD is obviously determined by a balance of canonic catalytic activity and numerous activity-independent protein-protein interactions, which still need better characterization.

Modifying the Secretome of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Prolongs the Regenerative Treatment Window for Encephalopathy of Prematurity.

Clinical treatment options to combat Encephalopathy of Prematurity (EoP) are still lacking. We, and others, have proposed (intranasal) mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as a potent therapeutic strategy to boost white matter repair in the injured preterm brain. Using a double-hit mouse model of diffuse white matter injury, we previously showed that the efficacy of MSC treatment was time dependent, with a significant decrease in functional and histological improvements after the postponement of cell administration. In this follow-up study, we aimed to investigate the mechanisms underlying this loss of therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, we optimized the regenerative potential of MSCs by means of genetic engineering with the transient hypersecretion of beneficial factors, in order to prolong the treatment window. Though the cerebral expression of known chemoattractants was stable over time, the migration of MSCs to the injured brain was partially impaired. Moreover, using a primary oligodendrocyte (OL) culture, we showed that the rescue of injured OLs was reduced after delayed MSC coculture. Cocultures of modified MSCs, hypersecreting IGF1, LIF, IL11, or IL10, with primary microglia and OLs, revealed a superior treatment efficacy over naïve MSCs. Additionally, we showed that the delayed intranasal administration of IGF1-, LIF-, or IL11-hypersecreting MSCs, improved myelination and the functional outcome in EoP mice. In conclusion, the impaired migration and regenerative capacity of intranasally applied MSCs likely underlie the observed loss of efficacy after delayed treatment. The intranasal administration of IGF1-, LIF-, or IL11-hypersecreting MSCs, is a promising optimization strategy to prolong the window for effective MSC treatment in preterm infants with EoP.

Nutraceutical potential of olive pomace: insights from cell-based and clinical studies.

Olive oil production yields a substantial volume of by-products, constituting up to 80% of the processed fruits. The olive pomace by-product represents a residue of significant interest due to the diverse bioactive compounds identified in it. However, a thorough characterization and elucidation of the biological activities of olive pomace are imperative to redirect its application for functional food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical purposes both for animals and humans. In this review, we examine data from experimental models, including immortalized human vascular endothelial cells, human corneal and conjunctival epithelial cells, human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells, non-tumorigenic human hepatoma cells, and murine macrophages alongside clinical trials. These studies aim to validate the safety, nutritional value, and pharmacological effects of olive pomace. In vitro studies suggest that biophenols extracted from olive pomace possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative properties that could be beneficial in mitigating cardiovascular disorders, particularly atherosclerosis, hepatosteatosis, and dry-eye disease. Protective effects against dry-eye disease were confirmed in a mouse model assay. Olive pomace used in the feed for fish and poultry has demonstrated the ability to enhance animals' immunity and improve nutritional quality of meat and eggs. Human clinical trials are scarce and have revealed minimal biological changes following the consumption of olive pomace-enriched foods. However, alterations in certain biomarkers tentatively suggest cardioprotective properties. The review underscores the value of olive pomace while addressing potential drawbacks and future perspectives, with a specific focus on the need for further investigation into the animal feed and human nutritional properties of olive pomace. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Engineered models of the lymphatic vascular system: Past, present, and future.

The lymphatic vascular system is crucial for optimizing body fluid level, regulating immune function, and transporting lipid. Relative to the experimental models to investigate blood vasculature, there are significantly fewer tools to explore lymphatics. Although in vivo studies have contributed to major discoveries in the field, finding and characterizing lymphatic specific markers has opened the door to isolating lymphatic vessels and cells for building ex vivo and in vitro platforms. These preparations have enabled the study and analysis of lymphatic vasculature in various physiological and pathophysiological conditions leading to a better understanding of cellular expressions and signaling. In this review, a broad range of ex vivo and in vitro engineered models are highlighted and categorized based on the major lymphatic function they model including contractile function, inflammation, drainage and immune regulation, lymphangiogenesis, and tumor-lymphatic interactions. Then, the novel 3D engineered tissues are introduced consisting of acellularized scaffolds and hydrogels to form vessels and cellular structures close to in vivo morphology. This paper also compares traditional in vitro methods with recent technologies and elaborates on the inherent advantages and limitations of each preparation by critically discussing simplest to most complex tissue-cellular structures. It concludes with an outlook of the lymphatic vasculature models and the possible future direction of contemporary tools, such as organ-on-chips.

Microbially mediated climate feedbacks from wetland ecosystems.

Wetlands are crucial nodes in the carbon cycle, emitting approximately 20% of global CH4 while also sequestering 20%-30% of all soil carbon. Both greenhouse gas fluxes and carbon storage are driven by microbial communities in wetland soils. However, these key players are often overlooked or overly simplified in current global climate models. Here, we first integrate microbial metabolisms with biological, chemical, and physical processes occurring at scales from individual microbial cells to ecosystems. This conceptual scale-bridging framework guides the development of feedback loops describing how wetland-specific climate impacts (i.e., sea level rise in estuarine wetlands, droughts and floods in inland wetlands) will affect future climate trajectories. These feedback loops highlight knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to develop predictive models of future climates capturing microbial contributions. We propose a roadmap connecting environmental scientific disciplines to address these knowledge gaps and improve the representation of microbial processes in climate models. Together, this paves the way to understand how microbially mediated climate feedbacks from wetlands will impact future climate change.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of aflatoxin B1-mediated neurotoxicity: The therapeutic role of natural bioactive compounds.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a dietary toxin from the mold Aspergillus species, is well acknowledged to elicit extra-hepatic toxicity in both animals and humans. The neurotoxicity of AFB1 has become a global public health concern. Contemporary research on how AFB1 enters the brain to elicit neuronal dysregulation leading to noxious neurological outcomes has increased greatly in recent years. The current review discusses several neurotoxic outcomes and susceptible targets of AFB1 toxicity at cellular, molecular and genetic levels. Specifically, neurotoxicity studies involving the use of brain homogenates, neuroblastoma cell line IMR-32, human brain microvascular endothelial cells, microglial cells, and astrocytes, as well as mammalian and non-mammalian models to unravel the mechanisms associated with AFB1 exposure are highlighted. Further, some naturally occurring bioactive compounds with compelling therapeutic effects on AFB1-induced neurotoxicity are reviewed. In conclusion, available data from literature highlight AFB1 as a neurotoxin and its possible pathological contribution to neurological disorders. Further mechanistic studies aimed at discovering and developing effective therapeutics for AFB1 neurotoxicity is warranted.

Diabetic retinopathy: a comprehensive update on in vivo, in vitro and ex vivo experimental models.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR), one of the leading causes of visual impairment and blindness worldwide, is one of the major microvascular complications in diabetes mellitus (DM). Globally, DR prevalence among DM patients is 25%, and 6% have vision-threatening problems among them. With the higher incidence of DM globally, more DR cases are expected to be seen in the future. In order to comprehend the pathophysiological mechanism of DR in humans and discover potential novel substances for the treatment of DR, investigations are typically conducted using various experimental models. Among the experimental models, in vivo models have contributed significantly to understanding DR pathogenesis. There are several types of in vivo models for DR research, which include chemical-induced, surgical-induced, diet-induced, and genetic models. Similarly, for the in vitro models, there are several cell types that are utilised in DR research, such as retinal endothelial cells, Müller cells, and glial cells. With the advancement of DR research, it is essential to have a comprehensive update on the various experimental models utilised to mimic DR environment. This review provides the update on the in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo models used in DR research, focusing on their features, advantages, and limitations.

In vitro and ex vivo experimental models for evaluation of intranasal systemic drug delivery as well as direct nose-to-brain drug delivery.

The intranasal route of administration provides a noninvasive method to deliver drugs into the systemic circulation and/or directly into the brain. Direct nose-to-brain drug delivery offers the possibility to treat central nervous system diseases more effectively, as it can evade the blood-brain barrier. In vitro and ex vivo intranasal models provide a means to investigate physiological and pharmaceutical factors that could play a role in drug delivery across the nasal epithelium as well as to determine the mechanisms involved in drug absorption from the nose. The development and implementation of cost-effective pharmacokinetic models for intranasal drug delivery with good in vitro-in vivo correlation can accelerate pharmaceutical drug product development and improve economic and ecological aspects by reducing the time and costs spent on animal studies. Special considerations should be made with regard to the purpose of the in vitro/ex vivo study, namely, whether it is intended to predict systemic or brain delivery, source and site of tissue or cell sampling, viability window of selected model, and the experimental setup of diffusion chambers. The type of model implemented should suit the relevant needs and requirements of the project, researcher, and interlaboratory. This review aims to provide an overview of in vitro and ex vivo models that have been developed to study intranasal and direct nose-to-brain drug delivery.

Effects of the invasive and non-invasive systemic photobiomodulation using low-level laser in experimental models: A systematic review.

Systemic photobiomodulation (PBM) of the blood or over blood vessels has been associated with bio-stimulating, vasodilating, and anti-inflammatory properties. This treatment modality has been used for modulating inflammatory processes, tissue repair, atherosclerosis, and systemic arterial hypertension, and is described more often in clinical studies than experimental models. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to conduct a literature review regarding the effect of systemic PBM involving the intravascular laser irradiation of blood (ILIB) or non-invasive vascular photobiomodulation (VPBM) using low-level laser (LLL) in experimental (animal) models. The PubMed/MEDLINE®, Scopus, SPIE Digital Library, and Web of Science databases were searched for articles on the use of VPBM with LLL in animal models. Nine original articles met the inclusion criteria and were critically evaluated. The variables of interest were the dosimetric laser parameters, different methods for delivering energy, and the main results. The use laser in the red spectrum was more prevalent and VPBM (non-invasive) predominated over ILIB (invasive). No standardization was found in the dosimetric parameters. However, the studies showed the positive effects of VPBM on arterial pressure and blood circulation, the positive effects of ILIB on blood composition and hematological markers, as well as positive effects of both forms of systemic PBM (ILIB and VPBM) on the tissue repair process. In conclusion, the studies evaluated in the present review showed that the use of systemic PBM with ILIB or non-invasive VPBM induced positive effects, modulating metabolic conditions and tissue repair. However, there is a need for standardization in the dosimetric parameters for the different conditions and processes evaluated using experimental models.

Artificial intelligence for neurodegenerative experimental models.

INTRODUCTION: Experimental models are essential tools in neurodegenerative disease research. However, the translation of insights and drugs discovered in model systems has proven immensely challenging, marred by high failure rates in human clinical trials. METHODS: Here we review the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) in experimental medicine for dementia research. RESULTS: Considering the specific challenges of reproducibility and translation between other species or model systems and human biology in preclinical dementia research, we highlight best practices and resources that can be leveraged to quantify and evaluate translatability. We then evaluate how AI and ML approaches could be applied to enhance both cross-model reproducibility and translation to human biology, while sustaining biological interpretability. DISCUSSION: AI and ML approaches in experimental medicine remain in their infancy. However, they have great potential to strengthen preclinical research and translation if based upon adequate, robust, and reproducible experimental data. HIGHLIGHTS: There are increasing applications of AI in experimental medicine. We identified issues in reproducibility, cross-species translation, and data curation in the field. Our review highlights data resources and AI approaches as solutions. Multi-omics analysis with AI offers exciting future possibilities in drug discovery.

Vitamin E and Its Molecular Effects in Experimental Models of Neurodegenerative Diseases.

With the advancement of in vivo studies and clinical trials, the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases has been better understood. However, gaps still need to be better elucidated, which justifies the publication of reviews that explore the mechanisms related to the development of these diseases. Studies show that vitamin E supplementation can protect neurons from the damage caused by oxidative stress, with a positive impact on the prevention and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, this review aims to summarize the scientific evidence of the effects of vitamin E supplementation on neuroprotection and on neurodegeneration markers in experimental models. A search for studies published between 2000 and 2023 was carried out in the PubMed, Web of Science, Virtual Health Library (BVS), and Embase databases, in which the effects of vitamin E in experimental models of neurodegeneration were investigated. A total of 5669 potentially eligible studies were identified. After excluding the duplicates, 5373 remained, of which 5253 were excluded after checking the titles, 90 articles after reading the abstracts, and 11 after fully reviewing the manuscripts, leaving 19 publications to be included in this review. Experiments with in vivo models of neurodegenerative diseases demonstrated that vitamin E supplementation significantly improved memory, cognition, learning, motor function, and brain markers associated with neuroregeneration and neuroprotection. Vitamin E supplementation reduced beta-amyloid (Aß) deposition and toxicity in experimental models of Alzheimer's disease. In addition, it decreased tau-protein hyperphosphorylation and increased superoxide dismutase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in rodents, which seems to indicate the potential use of vitamin E in preventing and delaying the progress of degenerative lesions in the central nervous system.

Experimental Models of Traumatic Injuries: Do They Capture the Coagulopathy and Underlying Endotheliopathy Induced by Human Trauma?

Trauma-induced coagulopathy (TIC) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with traumatic injury. It describes the spectrum of coagulation abnormalities that occur because of the trauma itself and the body's response to the trauma. These coagulation abnormalities range from hypocoagulability and hyperfibrinolysis, resulting in potentially fatal bleeding, in the early stages of trauma to hypercoagulability, leading to widespread clot formation, in the later stages. Pathological changes in the vascular endothelium and its regulation of haemostasis, a phenomenon known as the endotheliopathy of trauma (EoT), are thought to underlie TIC. Our understanding of EoT and its contribution to TIC remains in its infancy largely due to the scarcity of experimental research. This review discusses the mechanisms employed by the vascular endothelium to regulate haemostasis and their dysregulation following traumatic injury before providing an overview of the available experimental in vitro and in vivo models of trauma and their applicability for the study of the EoT and its contribution to TIC.

Pulmonary Sarcoidosis: Experimental Models and Perspectives of Molecular Diagnostics Using Quantum Dots.

Sarcoidosis is a complex inflammatory multisystem disease of unknown etiology that is characterised by epithelioid cell granulomatous lesions affecting various organs, mainly the lungs. In general, sarcoidosis is asymptomatic, but some cases result in severe complications and organ failure. So far, no accurate and validated modelling for clinical and pathohistological manifestations of sarcoidosis is suggested. Moreover, knowledge about disease-specific diagnostic markers for sarcoidosis is scarce. For instance, pulmonary granulomatosis is associated with the upregulated production of proinflammatory molecules: TNF-α, IL-6, CXCL1, CCL2, CCL18, CD163, serum angiotensin-converting enzyme (sACE), lysozyme, neopterin, and serum amyloid A (SAA). Quantum dots (QDs) are widely applied for molecular diagnostics of various diseases. QDs are semiconductor nanoparticles of a few nanometres in size, made from ZnS, CdS, ZnSe, etc., with unique physical and chemical properties that are useful for the labelling and detection in biological experiments. QDs can conjugate with various antibodies or oligonucleotides, allowing for high-sensitivity detection of various targets in organs and cells. Our review describes existing experimental models for sarcoidosis (in vitro, in vivo, and in silico), their advantages and restrictions, as well as the physical properties of quantum dots and their potential applications in the molecular diagnostics of sarcoidosis. The most promising experimental models include mice with TSC2 deletion and an in silico multiscale computational model of sarcoidosis (SarcoidSim), developed using transcriptomics and flow cytometry of human sarcoid biopsies. Both models are most efficient to test different candidate drugs for sarcoidosis.

Gut Microbiota and Alzheimer's Disease: How to Study and Apply Their Relationship.

Gut microbiota (GM), the microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract, contribute to the regulation of brain homeostasis through bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain. GM disturbance has been discovered to be related to various neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, the microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) has emerged as an enticing subject not only to understand AD pathology but also to provide novel therapeutic strategies for AD. In this review, the general concept of the MGBA and its impacts on the development and progression of AD are described. Then, diverse experimental approaches for studying the roles of GM in AD pathogenesis are presented. Finally, the MGBA-based therapeutic strategies for AD are discussed. This review provides concise guidance for those who wish to obtain a conceptual and methodological understanding of the GM and AD relationship with an emphasis on its practical application.

Experimental Models to Study Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy.

Proliferative vitreoretinal diseases (PVDs) encompass proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR), epiretinal membranes, and proliferative diabetic retinopathy. These vision-threatening diseases are characterized by the development of proliferative membranes above, within and/or below the retina following epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and/or endothelial-mesenchymal transition of endothelial cells. As surgical peeling of PVD membranes remains the sole therapeutic option for patients, development of in vitro and in vivo models has become essential to better understand PVD pathogenesis and identify potential therapeutic targets. The in vitro models range from immortalized cell lines to human pluripotent stem-cell-derived RPE and primary cells subjected to various treatments to induce EMT and mimic PVD. In vivo PVR animal models using rabbit, mouse, rat, and swine have mainly been obtained through surgical means to mimic ocular trauma and retinal detachment, and through intravitreal injection of cells or enzymes to induce EMT and investigate cell proliferation and invasion. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the usefulness, advantages, and limitations of the current models available to investigate EMT in PVD.