Genomic insights into isolation of the threatened Florida crested caracara (Caracara plancus).

We conducted a population genomic study of the crested caracara (Caracara plancus) using samples (n = 290) collected from individuals in Florida, Texas, and Arizona, United States. Crested caracaras are non-migratory raptors ranging from the southern tip of South America to the southern United States, including a federally protected relict population in Florida long thought to have been isolated since the last ice age. Our objectives were to evaluate genetic diversity and population structure of Florida's apparently isolated population and to evaluate taxonomic relationships of crested caracaras at the northern edge of their range. Using DNA purified from blood samples, we conducted double-digest restriction site associated DNA sequencing and sequenced the mitochondrial ND2 gene. Analyses of population structure using over 9,000 SNPs suggest that two major clusters are best supported, one cluster including only Florida individuals and the other cluster including Arizona and Texas individuals. Both SNPs and mitochondrial haplotypes reveal the Florida population to be highly differentiated genetically from Arizona and Texas populations, whereas, Arizona and Texas populations are moderately differentiated from each other. The Florida population's mitochondrial haplotypes form a separate monophyletic group, while Arizona and Texas populations share mitochondrial haplotypes. Results of this study provide substantial genetic evidence that Florida's crested caracaras have experienced long-term isolation from caracaras in Arizona and Texas and thus, represent a distinct evolutionary lineage possibly warranting distinction as an Evolutionarily Significant Unit (ESU) or subspecies. This study will inform conservation strategies focused on long-term survival of Florida's distinct, panmictic population.

Sex interacts with age-dependent change in the abundance of lice-infesting Amur Falcons (Falco amurensis).

Sex-biassed and age-biassed parasite infections are common in nature, including ectoparasites-vertebrate host systems. We investigated the effect of Amur Falcons' sex, age and body size on the abundance of their lice at a migratory stopover site, where the falcons' habitat use and behaviour are more homogeneous across sex and age categories than during the breeding season. We sampled Amur Falcons in Nagaland, India at major roosting sites in 2016. We applied generalized linear models (with negative binomial distribution and log-link) to model the abundance of their two most numerous lice (Colpocephalum subzerafae and Degeeriella rufa) using the host age category (juvenile or adult) and wing length, both in interaction with sex, as explanatory variables. The abundance of C. subzerafae was only affected by host age, being nearly four times higher on juveniles than on adults. Juveniles were also more infested with D. rufa than the adults. Additionally, the abundance of the latter species was lower on adult male Falcons as compared to adult females. A juvenile bias in ectoparasite infestations is common in nature, probably due to juveniles being immunologically naïve, more resource-limited and may be inexperienced in body maintenance behaviours like preening and grooming. On the other hand, female-biassed infestations are much rarer than male-biassed infestations. We briefly discuss the possible causes of female-biassed infestations on Amur Falcons reported here, and in the closely related Red-footed Falcon and Lesser Kestrel as reported in the literature.

Sex-dependent changes in the louse abundance of red-footed falcons (Falco vespertinus).

Permanent ectoparasites live in stable environments; thus, their population dynamics are mostly adapted to changes in the host life cycle. We aimed to investigate how static and dynamic traits of red-footed falcons interplay with the dynamics of their louse subpopulations during breeding and how they affect the colonisation of new hosts by lice. We sampled red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus) nestlings (two breeding seasons) and adults (one breeding season) in southern Hungary. The mean abundance of Colpocephalum subzerafae and Degeeriella rufa lice on the nestlings was modelled with generalized linear mixed models using clutch size and host sex in interaction with wing length. For adults, we used wing length and the number of days after laying the first egg, both in interaction with sex. D. rufa abundances increased with the nestlings' wing length. In one year, this trend was steeper on females. In adult birds, both louse species exhibited higher abundances on females at the beginning, but it decreased subsequently through the breeding season. Contrarily, abundances were constantly low on adult males. Apparently, D. rufa postpones transmission until nestlings develop juvenile plumage and choose the more feathered individual among siblings. The sexual difference in the observed abundance could either be caused by the different plumage, or by the females' preference for less parasitized males. Moreover, females likely have more time to preen during the incubation period, lowering their louse burdens. Thus, sex-biased infestation levels likely arise due to parasite preferences in the nestlings and host behavioural processes in the adult falcons.

Application and Evaluation of Novel Chromatographic Techniques to Detect and Quantitate 108 Pesticides and Metabolites in Muscle Samples From Wild Birds of Prey.

The application and evaluation of highly efficient chromatographic techniques with tandem mass spectrometry for the detection and quantitation of 108 pesticides and metabolites, some considered persistent organic pollutants, was performed in muscle samples obtained from 25 birds of prey belonging to the families Accipitridae, Falconidae, and Strigidae presented dead in 2013 to Grupo de Rehabilitación de la Fauna Autóctona y su Hábitat, in Madrid, Spain. Pesticides with prohibited use were detected at high concentrations in the muscle samples analyzed. Based on its high sensitivity to detect pesticides in muscle, the described chromatographic techniques with tandem mass spectrometry should be considered an alternative testing methodology to those commonly used for routine application in ecotoxicological forensic research.

Striking pseudogenization in avian phylogenetics: Numts are large and common in falcons.

Nuclear copies of mitochondrial genes (numts) are a well-known feature of eukaryotic genomes and a concern in systematics, as they can mislead phylogenetic inferences when inadvertently used. Studies on avian numts initially based on the chicken genome suggest that numts may be uncommon and relatively short among birds. Here we ask how common numts are in falcons, based on recently sequenced genomes of the Saker falcon (Falco cherrug) and Peregrine falcon (F. peregrinus). We identified numts by BLASTN searches and then extracted CYTB, ND2 and COI sequences from them, which were then used for phylogeny inference along with several sequences from other species in Falconiformes. Our results indicate that avian numts may be much more frequent and longer than previously thought. Phylogenetic inferences revealed multiple independent nuclear insertions throughout the history of the Falconiformes, including cases of sequences available in public databases and wrongly identified as authentic mtDNA. New sequencing technologies and ongoing efforts for whole genome sequencing will provide exciting opportunities for avian numt research in the near future.

Rapid diversification of falcons (Aves: Falconidae) due to expansion of open habitats in the Late Miocene.

Understanding how and why lineages diversify is central to understanding the origins of biological diversity. The avian family Falconidae (caracaras, forest-falcons, falcons) has an uneven distribution of species among multiple well-supported clades, and provides a useful system for testing hypotheses about diversification rate and correlation with environmental changes. We analyzed eight independent loci for 1-7 individuals from each of the 64 currently recognized Falconidae species, together with two fossil falconid temporal calibrations, to assess phylogeny, absolute divergence times and potential shifts in diversification rate. Our analyses supported similar diversification ages in the Early to Middle Miocene for the three traditional subfamilies, Herpetotherinae, Polyborinae and Falconinae. We estimated that divergences within the subfamily Falconinae began about 16mya and divergences within the most species-rich genus, Falco, including about 60% of all Falconidae species, began about 7.5mya. We found evidence for a significant increase in diversification rate at the basal phylogenetic node for the genus Falco, and the timing for this rate shift correlates generally with expansion of C4 grasslands beginning around the Miocene/Pliocene transition. Concomitantly, Falco lineages that are distributed primarily in grassland or savannah habitats, as opposed to woodlands, and exhibit migratory, as opposed to sedentary, behavior experienced a higher diversification rate.

A review of the feather mite family Gabuciniidae Gaud amp; Atyeo (Acariformes: Astigmata: Pterolichoidea) of Brazil, with descriptions of eleven new species.

The feather mite family Gabuciniidae currently includes 16 genera and approximately 65 described species associated with birds of nine orders, with the greatest diversity on Accipitriformes. In this study, 11 new species are described from the following hosts: Aetacarus accipiter sp. nov. from the Bicolored Hawk Accipiter bicolor (Vieillot, 1817) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae), Capitolichus campoflicker sp. nov. from the Campo Flicker Colaptes campestris (Vieillot, 1818) (Piciformes: Picidae), Coraciacarus cabure sp. nov. from the Barred Forest-falcon Micrastur ruficollis (Vieillot, 1817) (Falconiformes: Falconidae), Coraciacarus peixefrito sp. nov. from the Pheasant Cuckoo Dromococcyx phasianellus (Spix, 1824) (Cuculiformes: Cuculidae), Gabucinia neotropica sp. nov. from the Curl-crested Jay Cyanocorax cristatellus (Temminck, 1823) (type host) and C. chrysops (Vieillot, 1818) (Passeriformes: Corvidae), Hieracolichus caboclo sp. nov. from the Savanna Hawk Buteogallus meridionalis (Latham, 1790) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae), Hieracolichus falcon sp. nov. from the Southern Caracara Caracara plancus (Miller, 1777) (Falconiformes: Falconidae), Piciformobia adjuncta sp. nov. from the Guira Cuckoo Guira guira (Gmelin, 1788) (Cuculiformes: Cuculidae), Proaposolenidia bicolor sp. nov. from the Bicolored Hawk Accipiter bicolor (Vieillot, 1817) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae), Proaposolenidia plumbea sp. nov. from the Plumbeous Kite Ictinia plumbea (Gmelin, 1788) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae), and Tocolichus toco sp. nov. from the Toco Toucan Ramphastos toco Statius Müller, 1776 (Piciformes: Ramphastidae). In addition, two new combinations are proposed, Proaposolenidia ostoda (Gaud, 1983) comb. nov. and Aetacarus hirundo (Mégnin Trouessart, 1884) comb. nov., both transferred from the genus Hieracolichus. With the addition of these new species, the number of gabuciniids described from the Neotropical region has increased from 14 to 25 species. These findings indicate that Brazil is home to a large diversity of undescribed gabuciniids, which is not surprising considering the vast bird fauna of this country, and especially since most avian species from Brazil have yet to be investigated for their feather mites.

A reassessment on the state of knowledge of Chilean Falconidae in the last hundred years.

Eight species of falcons (Falconidae) have been recorded in Chile. To date, all relevant studies considered birds of prey in general, with no specific focus on this family. Based on a comprehensive review of the literature, an updated report is presented on the state of knowledge of falcons in Chile. This data set comprises a total of 165 studies published from 1915 to 2015. Scientific productivity was lowest in 1945-1955 and highest in 2005-2015, with a steady increase since 1985. However, the focus of research in Chile is biased towards two species: Milvago chimango and Falco sparverius. Two administrative regions, Santiago Metropolitan Region and Araucanía, were the most studied whereas Arica, Tarapacá, and Antofagasta regions accounted for fewer than 1% of the studies. Faunistic studies (including abundance) were the most common research topic. It is suggested that the lack of knowledge regarding species in the genus Phalcoboenus may negatively affect the conservation status of these species, and believed that the lack of preference for certain research topics, such as systematics and natural history, are the result of historical factors including the decrease of field biology and perhaps a biased interest of the researchers. Finally, this review highlights the paucity of information on falcons and provides a framework for directing future research.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the Saker falcon, Falco cherrug (Falco, Falconidae).

The Falco cherrug (Saker falcon) is a large bird of prey. In this article, the complete mitochondrial genome of F. cherrug has been determined for the first time. The mitogenome (18,059 bp) comprised 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes and 1 control region. Most protein-coding genes started with an ATG or ATA codon except for COI, which initiated with nontypical start codon of GTG instead, and terminated with the typical stop codon (TAA/TAG/AGA/AGG) or a single T. Two tandem repeats were identified in the control region, which was almost identical to Falco peregrinus, and the length of these two repeats are 204 bp and 291 bp, respectively.

Bactris gasipaes fruits consumption by Caracara plancus in the Municipality of Brasiléia, southwestern Amazon, Brazil / Consumo de frutos de Bactris gasipaes por Caracara plancus en el municipio de Brasiléia, suroeste de la Amazonía, Brasil

The Southern Caracara (Caracara plancus) is a South American falconid that over the years has been colonizing open areas of the Southwestern Amazon. Regarding food habits, it is considered an opportunistic/generalist species. Caracara plancus has a varied diet, composed of animal protein, including carcasses. It also consumes plants, although this behavior appears less frequently in the scientific literature. Here we present a report of a Southern Caracara feeding on peach-palm fruits (Bactris gasipaes) in the rural area of Brasiléia, state of Acre, Brazil. The peach-palm tree is a common species, cultivated for obtaining heart of palm ("palmitos") and fruits for consumption and regional marketing. Besides being a new food item in the Southern Caracara diet, the observed behavior indicates that C. plancus can potentially become a plague to the regional culture of peach-palm.

El caracara carancho (Caracara plancus) es una especie de falcónido sudamericano que ha venido colonizando áreas abiertas del suroeste de la Amazonia. Presenta un hábito alimenticio considerado como oportunista/generalist; su alimentación es variada, compuesta básicamente de proteína animal; incluyendo carcasas. El Caracara carancho también consume materia vegetal; aunque este comportamiento aparezca con menos frecuencia en la literatura científica. Aquí reportamos un individuo de Caracara carancho alimentado de frutos de chontaduro (Bactris gasipaes) en la zona rural de la ciudad de Brasiléia; Estado de Acre; Brazil. El chontaduro es una especie cultivada comúnmente para la obtención de palmitos y frutos para consumo ycomercialización regional. Elpresentereporte,además de ser un nuevo item alimentario para el C. plancus, tambien sugiere que C. plancus podría convertirse en una plaga para el cultivo regional del chontaduro.

[Radiographic findings in raptors affected with a mycosis of the respiratory tract]. / Röntgenzeichen bei an Mykose des Respirationstrakts erkrankten Greifvögeln.

OBJECTIVE: Summary of typical radiographic signs in birds of prey with aspergillosis compared to signs previously established in parrots. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Evaluation of radiographs of 110 falcons (Falco spp.) with aspergillosis confirmed by endoscopy. RESULTS: Compared to parrots primarily subtle radiographic signs were detected in falcons (especially inhomogeneously increased radiodensities of the airsacs/lungs). Two typical signs for diseased falcons consisted of the poor delineation of the cardiac silhouette and the line-shaped increased radiodensity of the caudal lung border. Radiographic diagnosis of the lung is limited due to the strong flight musculature. CONCLUSION: The varying results between avian species can be explained by the different radiographic anatomy, husbandry conditions and x-ray technique (digital versus analog). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A pet bird-experienced practitioner should be aware of specific radiographic signs in birds of prey suspected of having aspergillosis.

Brazilian cleaner birds: update and brief reappraisal / Aves limpadoras Brasileiras: atualização e breve reavaliação

Some bird species feed on external parasites, such as ticks and flies, on the body of mammals (hosts or clients). So called cleaner birds that occur in Brazil were reviewed recently, but gathering of significant new data indicates the need for an update and a brief reappraisal of such association. New records raise the number of known clients for some cleaning birds. The Southern Caracara (Caracara plancus) picks ticks on cattle, and the Black Caracara (Daptrius ater) picks ticks on capybaras. The Wattled Jacana (Jacana jacana) picks ticks, horseflies, arthropods and organic debris on capybaras, and tick-picking on capybaras by the Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) is substantiated by photographs. The Cattle Tyrant (Machetornis rixosa) deftly catches horseflies on capybaras, and these latter clients are recorded posing for the Giant Cowbird (Molothrus oryzivorus), which also pick parasites from the marsh deer. The Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) definitely picks ticks directly on cattle. With the new records, some poorly documented or controversial issues in the literature are here confirmed, a hypothesis is validated, and a suggestion is invalidated.

Algumas espécies de aves alimentam-se de parasitas externos, como carrapatos e moscas, sobre o corpo de mamíferos (hospedeiros ou clientes). As assim denominadas aves limpadoras que ocorrem no Brasil foram recentemente revistas, porém o acúmulo de novos e importantes dados indica a necessidade de atualização e breve reavaliação deste tipo de associação. Novos registros elevam o número de clientes conhecidos para algumas espécies de aves limpadoras. O caracará (Caracara plancus) cata carrapatos em gado vacum, e o gavião-de-anta (Daptrius ater) apanha carrapatos em capivaras. A jaçanã (Jacana jacana) apanha carrapatos, mutucas, artrópodes e partículas orgânicas em capivaras, e a retirada de carrapatos em capivaras pelo vira-bosta (Molothrus bonariensis) é aqui evidenciada por fotografias. O suiriri-cavaleiro (Machetornis rixosa) caça destramente mutucas em capivaras, e estes últimos clientes são aqui registrados posando para a iraúna-grande (Molothrus oryzivorus), que também cata parasitas do cervo-do-pantanal. A garça-vaqueira (Bubulcus ibis) de fato apanha carrapatos diretamente no gado. Com os novos registros, alguns assuntos pouco documentados ou controversos na literatura são aqui confirmados, uma hipótese é validada, e uma sugestão é invalidada.

The Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango), an additional fisher among Caracarini falcons / O chimango (Milvago chimango), um pescador adicional entre os falcões Caracarini

The Caracarini falcons are among the most versatile birds of prey, and their variable diet includes fishes, which may be taken as carrion. However, fishing behaviour is described for two species. Here we describe the Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango) fishing at an estuary in Chile, Pacific coast of South America. The caracara flew and glided close to water surface, hovering on occasions. After such a hovering, the bird plunged and attempted to snatch a prey with its talons. If successful, the caracara carried the fish in its talons and landed on an adjacent beach where the prey was torn apart and eaten. The 'glide-hover' technique of the Chimango Caracara differs slightly from the fishing recorded for the closely related Yellow-headed Caracara (Milvago chimachima), which plunges to the prey from a nearby perch ('perch to water'). The Black Caracara (Daptrius ater) picks up fish individually with its bill or talons while staying on a river bank ('ground foraging'). Thus, at least three fishing techniques are used by the Caracarini falcons, a group already known for its varied foraging techniques.

Os falcões da tribo Caracarini estão entre as aves de rapina mais versáteis e sua variada dieta inclui peixes, que podem ser apanhados mortos. Todavia, comportamento de pesca está descrito para duas espécies. Descrevemos aqui o chimango (Milvago chimango) pescando num estuário no Chile, costa pacífica da América do Sul. A ave voava e planava próximo à superfície da água, pairando de quando em vez. Após este pairar, o chimango baixava rapidamente e tentava apanhar uma presa com suas garras. Se bem sucedido, o chimango carregava o peixe em suas garras e pousava numa praia próxima, onde a presa era dilacerada e consumida. A tática de 'planar-pairar' do chimango difere ligeiramente da tática de pesca adotada pelo pinhé (Milvago chimachima), espécie relacionada, que se lança sobre a presa a partir de um poleiro. O gavião-de-anta (Daptrius ater) apanha peixes individualmente com o bico ou garras, enquanto pousado na margem de um rio. Portanto, pelo menos três táticas de pesca são usadas pelos falcões Caracarini, um grupo conhecido pelas suas variadas táticas de forrageio.