From parents to children: associations of traffic risks with impulsivity, family relationships and serotonin transporter genotype.

Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death for young adults, and parents play a major role in shaping their traffic behaviour. Higher impulsivity (predictor of higher traffic risk) has been shown to be dependent on family relations and the serotonin transporter gene promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR). The specific mechanisms for the inheritance of risky traffic behaviour from parents to children are not clear, and the genetic aspect has not been studied before. We used data of Estonian Children Personality Behaviour and Health Study subjects (n = 596, mean age = 25.2 ± 0.6) and their parents (mothers, n = 460, mean age = 52.1 ± 5.8; fathers, n = 339, mean age = 54.1 ± 6.5). Family relationships scale, traffic risk questionnaires and Adaptive and Maladaptive Impulsivity Scale were filled out. The increased risk-taking behaviour of parents and worse quality of family relationship were significant predictors of higher traffic risk among subjects. Family support and impulsivity of fathers significantly predicted the subjects' traffic risk score in interaction with 5-HTTLPR genotype: l'/l' homozygous subjects with adaptively impulsive fathers had higher traffic risk, whereas for s'-allele carrying subjects family support was more significant. Parental role modelling and family relationships are significant predictors of future traffic behaviour of the child. Whether the behavioural example of the father or the influence of family relationships is more important in predicting future risky traffic behaviour, depends on the 5-HTTLPR genotype of the child.

Aging with my family: a grounded theory approach on the role of family when aging as foreign-born.

BACKGROUND: Research indicates that it is the quality of the closest relationships in the mixture of social relations that matters most for older adults. For older foreign-born, especially those who migrate late in life, the family is often the only socioeconomical resource they can lean on. This study aims to explore how older foreign-born perceive the role of family as they age. METHODS: The study design has a grounded theory approach. Data consist of individual open-ended interviews with 15 foreign-born informants aged between 60 and 85 years old who migrated to Sweden as adults from various parts of the world. RESULTS: The findings demonstrate that family was an essential part of the informants' lives as they lived for their families and their families lived for them. Family solidarity was described as a cultural heritage they took over from their original families and a cultural heritage they wished to pass on to their future generations. They found that this was what separated them as foreign-born from native-born. Memories of their parents reminded them of their biological, social, and cultural heritages. The intimate relationship with their spouses in a life course had served as a source of validation of their individual identities and promoted personal growth and self-esteem. The role as a loving and caring parent entailed a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction for the life lived. And now as grandparents, the role as a link between the family's historical heritage and the future generation entailed not only a sense of coherence as they aged but also hope and meaning beyond their own lives. CONCLUSIONS: The older foreign-born experienced life satisfaction as they aged with their families. Family meant community and solidarity. It was in the family that they found their distinct roles that had defined them. Family was an indispensable part of their social identity. The findings highlight the importance of older foreign-born being studied from a family and lifetime perspective.

Daily implementation of health-protective behaviors and family life during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has necessitated the use of health-protective behaviors (HPB), such as social distancing, staying at home, frequent handwashing, and wearing facemasks to mitigate the transmission of disease. An investigation of interpersonal costs associated with the use of HPB can help inform strategies to promote their sustained implementation. This study examined the daily associations between the implementation of HPB and family functioning and assessed moderation by coparenting quality, economic strain, and the number of days that state-level stay-at-home policies had been in effect, during the early days of the pandemic. Mothers and fathers from 155 families with children who were 9 years old, on average, completed daily reports of HPB, parental stress, and family relationship quality over eight consecutive days in April or May of 2020. Hierarchal linear models showed that HPB was associated with increased levels of parental stress and interparental conflict. Negative coparenting relations exacerbated the next-day association between HPB and interparental conflict. HPB was also associated with increased levels of parent-child and interparental closeness, but these linkages dissipated for families who had spent more days under state-level stay-at-home policies. Although crucial for public health, the implementation of HPB may have detrimental short-term effects on daily family life. Family support and interventions are necessary to minimize the psychosocial burden of these important public health measures and increase their sustained adherence.

"A crossroads generation." Great-grandchildren of Holocaust survivors' perspectives on the impact of the genocide on family functioning.

As a cultural trauma, the Holocaust exerted negative psychological effects on many survivors, with such effects often extending to their families. Research has explored these effects with respect to the survivors' children and grandchildren, but the experiences of the next generation have yet to be canvassed. Knowledge about resilience in Holocaust survivor families is also comparatively sparse. In this exploratory study, 10 semi-structured interviews were conducted with Australian great-grandchildren of Holocaust survivors, garnering perspectives concerning the genocide's impact on family functioning. Six superordinate themes were identified through Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis: The experience of being raised by the third generation, honoring traumatic family histories, the need to move on, proudly identifying with the Holocaust, valuing achievement and ambition, and the importance of not taking things for granted. The findings suggest that multiple generations within survivor families grapple with the lingering negative effects of the Holocaust. Concurrently, attempting to redress these effects has the potential to benefit family dynamics and processes.

Exploring the factors contributing to parent stress symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe: An ABC-X model approach.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the mental health and well-being of families worldwide, with parents particularly at risk for stress and other psychological symptoms. In this study, we sought to understand the factors contributing to parent stress symptoms during the early stages of the pandemic in 23 European countries (N = 40,138) using the double ABC-X model. We examined whether the relationship between stressor pile-up and perceived stress was mediated by family satisfaction and relationship satisfaction and whether family resiliency beliefs impacted these mediated relationships. Our results showed a direct association between stressor pile-up and parent stress symptoms, but we did not find evidence for the mediating role of family satisfaction or relationship satisfaction in this relationship. We also found that family resiliency beliefs did not moderate the indirect effects of family satisfaction and relationship satisfaction on parent stress symptoms. These findings suggest that the ABC-X model may not fully capture the processes affecting parents' experience of stress during the pandemic and that alternative models such as the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model may be more relevant. Future research should also consider the potential negative impact of resiliency beliefs on mental health and other risk and protective factors such as self-compassion.

"If my wife earns more than me, she will force me to do what she wants": Women's economic empowerment and family caregiving dynamics in Tanzania.

Women's economic empowerment is recognized as a fundamental component of gender equality and global development. Despite a significant body of evidence highlighting the positive effects of women's labor force participation in low- and middle-income countries, relatively few studies have explored how caregivers of young children perceive women's economic empowerment in relation to childcare and family responsibilities. The objective of this study was to examine how mothers and fathers viewed the links between maternal employment and family caregiving dynamics specifically in terms of couples' relationships and parenting. We conducted in-depth interviews with 23 mothers and 29 fathers of young children under aged 2 years and 9 focus group discussions with mothers and fathers across 4 communities in Mwanza, Tanzania. Data were analyzed through both deductive and inductive approaches. Results revealed distinct gender differences in maternal versus paternal perceptions regarding women's engagement in income-generating activities. Mothers held favorable views towards employment and largely perceived positive effects on parenting, child, and family outcomes. On the other hand, most fathers were unsupportive of women's employment and held restrictive gender attitudes. Men feared a loss of power and perceived various negative consequences in terms of increased marital conflict, poorer maternal parenting, and worse child outcomes. Overall, this study revealed differences in maternal versus paternal perceptions about women's economic empowerment and its links with couples' relationships and parenting that were strongly shaped by gender attitudes. Women's economic empowerment programs that engage men to transform gender norms while incorporating program components to strengthen couples' relationships and promote positive parenting have potential for achieving family-wide benefits among mothers, fathers, and young children.

How Families Make Their Way Into Your Heart: Exploring the Associations Between Daily Experiences Involving Family Members and Cardiovascular Health.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease is a critical public health issue and a growing body of literature on relationships and health point to individuals' interactions and involvement with family members as significant correlates of cardiovascular outcomes. However, less is known about the implications of daily encounters with family members on cardiovascular health outcomes and how the associations vary across adulthood. PURPOSE: The aims of this study were to examine the associations of positive and negative daily experiences with family members with comprehensive measures of cardiovascular health and to further explore how age moderates these associations. METHODS: This study used data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) II and MIDUS Refresher. The sample was composed of respondents who participated in two subprojects of MIDUS, namely the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE) and Biomarker Project (N = 1,312). Indices of cardiovascular health included inflammatory markers, autonomic functioning, and Life's Simple 7 scores. RESULTS: Results showed that the associations between daily family experiences and cardiovascular outcomes differed by age. Having more daily negative experiences with family members was associated with better cardiovascular health outcomes among young adults and worse cardiovascular outcomes among older adults. Having more daily positive experiences was also associated with lower heart rate variability for older adults. CONCLUSIONS: Results revealed that contrary to the general assumption that negative experiences have health-damaging effects, frequent involvement with family members in daily life, even negative ones, may be indicative of active engagement in life that could be health promoting for younger adults.

Maternal periconceptional environmental exposure and offspring with congenital heart disease: a case-control study in Guangzhou, China.

BACKGROUND: Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are a major global health problem, yet their crucial environmental risk factors are still unclear. We aimed to explore the associations between maternal periconceptional environmental exposures and all CHDs, isolated and multiple CHDs and CHDs subtypes. METHOD: A case-control study including 675 infants with CHDs and 1545 healthy controls was conducted. Participating mothers who delivered in Guangzhou from October 2019 to November 2021 were recruited. To examine the independent associations between maternal periconceptional environmental exposure and offspring with CHDs, we calculated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using multivariable logistic regression model. RESULTS: Maternal exposure to living near main roads [adjusted OR (aOR) = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.06-3.56] and housing renovation (aOR = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.03-3.67) during the periconceptional period were positively related to a greater risk of all CHDs, similar results were also found in isolated CHDs rather than multiple CHDs. Additionally, living near main roads was positively associated with secundum atrial septal defect/patent foramen ovale (aOR = 2.65, 95% CI = 1.03-6.81) and housing renovation was strongly positively associated with ventricular septal defect (aOR = 5.08, 95% CI = 2.05-12.60). However, no association was observed between incense burning and family relationships and all CHDs, isolated and multiple CHDs and CHDs subtypes. CONCLUSION: Living near main roads and housing renovation during the periconceptional period are significantly associated with the increased risks for all CHDs and isolated CHDs. Further study is needed to extend sample size to explore the effects of time and frequency of burning incense and family relationships on CHDs in offspring.

What makes people feel loved? An exploratory study on core elements of love across family, romantic, and friend relationships.

With research long focusing on distinct characteristics of different love types, little is known about love as a general feeling across relationship contexts. To explore the core elements of love as perceived by laypeople and whether these elements weigh differently in different relationships, grounded theory was used to analyze open-ended responses from 468 individuals about their feeling loved in family, romantic, and friend relationships. Results indicated that the feeling of love is an interpersonal process in which one receives positive responsiveness from the other and experiences an authentic connection with the other, consistently across conditions and time (i.e., in a sense of stability); three core elements were shared across family, romantic, and friend relationships. Chi-square independence tests revealed differentiated weights for love elements in three relationships, which corresponded to the prototypical love definition in family, romantic, and friend relationships. Findings suggested an integrated theoretical conceptualization of love as a shared feeling and asset across relationships, which provided important insights on love conceptualization, assessment, and study design, as well as implications for the treatment of dysfunctional relationships, best practices in daily interpersonal interactions, and improvement in intervention and therapy.

The relatives of people with depression: A systematic review and methodological critique of qualitative studies.

Being a close relative of a person with depression can take a heavy toll on the former, but these relatives are increasingly made responsible for taking on extensive carer roles. Research on relatives of people with depression is currently dominated by a focus on "carer burden" and although such a focus can explain many relatives' experiences and daily lives, it provides very limited insight into the everyday life of a person living with someone with depression. Therefore, we scoped qualitative research on people who are relatives of people living with depression and identified knowledge gaps caused by explicit or implicit theoretical or methodological assumptions. We conducted an exhaustive literature search in CINAHL, PubMed, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, and Eric. In total, 34 publications were included, their quality evaluated and their findings mapped and summarized. We identified four interrelated and overlapping themes that dominated the findings of the publications: (a) recognition of "depression", (b) emotional responses, (c) interruptions of relationships, and (d) a staged psychosocial process. The vast majority of studies presented de-contextualized and underinterpreted analyses assuming a homogeneity of (illness) experiences and disregarded the important influence of social contributors to social relationships, connectedness, and mental health problems.

Longitudinal Associations between Peer and Family Relationships, Emotional Symptoms, and Regional Brain Volume across Adolescence.

The period of adolescence brings with it a dynamic interaction between social context and behaviour, structural brain development, and anxiety and depressive symptoms. The rate of volumetric change in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and amygdala have been implicated in socioemotional development in adolescence; typically, there is thinning of grey matter volume (GMV) in the vmPFC and growth in the amygdala during this time. The directionality of the associations between social, emotional, and neuroanatomical factors has yet to be untangled, such as the degree to which social variables impact regional brain development, and vice versa. To add, the differences between sexes are still up for debate. In this study, longitudinal associations between peer problems, family support, socioeconomic stress, emotional symptoms, amygdala volume, and vmPFC GMV were investigated for both sexes using latent change score models. Data from a multi-site European study at baseline (mean (SD) age = 14.40 (0.38) years; % female = 53.19) and follow-up 2 (mean (SD) age = 18.90 (0.69) years, % female = 53.19) were used. Results revealed that peer problems did not predict emotional symptoms, rather they changed together over time. For males only, there was positive correlated change between vmPFC GMV, peer problems and emotional symptoms, indicating that slower vmPFC GMV thinning was associated with poorer social and emotional functioning. Additionally, greater family support at age 14 years was associated with slower growth of amygdala volume between ages 14 and 19 years for males; previous research has related slower amygdala growth to resilience to mental health disorders. The findings have extended understanding of mutual social, emotional and brain development, and avenues to protect mental health.

Interdisciplinary simulation for nursing and medical students about final conversations: Catalyzing relationships at the end of life (CAREol).

OBJECTIVES: Final conversations (FCs) go beyond how patients want to be cared for at the end of life (EOL) and focus on messages of love, identity specific, and unique to an individual and relationship that requires self-examination, everyday talk that normalizes a difficult situation, religious/spiritual messages, and if needed, difficult relationship talk to heal broken relationships. The purpose of the Catalyzing Relationships at the End of Life (CAREol) program was to provide interdisciplinary education to nursing and medical students and clinical faculty about facilitating FCs among patients and families. METHOD: This two-part, quasi-experimental program consisted of a cognitive (online) and experiential (live simulation) curriculum experience. Program curriculum, including video vignettes, readings, and live simulation (utilizing actors), was developed by the study team. Reflective journaling and researcher designed pre- and post-tests were used to assess comfort, confidence, importance, and distress regarding FCs and collaboration with other disciplines. RESULTS: The pre-/post-test questions demonstrate statistical significance based on a paired t-test with effect sizes supporting the practical importance of the findings for effect size. Preliminary content and thematic analysis of qualitative responses describe categories of the mock team meeting experience and interaction with the actors to change patient and family outcomes. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: Early intervention with the CAREol program provides a framework to help students and clinical faculty facilitate FCs that may result in peace and comfort for patients and families during a difficult time.

The Double-Edged Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Chinese Family Relationships.

To comprehensively understand the Chinese family relationships (i.e., marital relationship, parent-child relationship, sibling relationship, and grandparent-grandchild relationship) during the COVID-19 pandemic, this study investigated the changes of family relationships and the individual differences related to knowledge of the COVID-19, personality traits (i.e., neuroticism and optimism), and emotional characteristics (i.e., emotion regulation and negative emotional reactions). From March 1 to April 5, 2020, 8821 participants were involved, including 3995 teenagers, 1146 unmarried young adults, 3571 married adults, and 109 grandparents. Results revealed a double-edged pattern that people experienced both positive changes and negative changes during the pandemic. Teenagers reported significant negative changes in the relationships with their parents. Peoples' knowledge of the COVID-19, neuroticism, optimism, emotion regulation, and negative emotional reactions were in varying extents to which accounted for the individual differences in the changes of family relationships. These findings help recognize the overall Chinese family relationships during the hard period.

Connecting to (Re)connect: Video Calling as a Resource to Unite Families and Children in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit During the COVID-19 Era.

Video calling emerged as an important resource during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) to reconnect child and family, bringing the possibility of communication even during isolation. The objective of this study was to understand the experiences of families who communicated with their children through video calls during isolation by COVID-19 in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). This was a qualitative study employing the theory of symbolic interactionism and the research method of grounded theory, with 14 families of children in PICU who used video calling as a communication resource. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The analysis revealed the main category of "Connecting to (re)connect: Video calling as a resource to unite families and children in PICU in the COVID-19 era," from which a theoretical model explaining the experience was built. Video calling is an important resource to mitigate the effects of family-child separation during hospitalization, and its use is encouraged in other contexts.

The longitudinal impact of an evidence-based multiple family group intervention (Amaka Amasanyufu) on oppositional defiant disorder and impaired functioning among children in Uganda: analysis of a cluster randomized trial from the SMART Africa-Uganda scale-up study (2016-2022).

BACKGROUND: Oppositional Defiant Disorders (ODDs) and other Disruptive Behavior Disorders (DBDs) are common among children and adolescents in poverty-impacted communities in sub-Saharan Africa. Without early intervention, its progression into adulthood can result in dire consequences. We examined the impact of a manualized family strengthening intervention called Amaka Amasanyufu designed to reduce ODDs and other DBDs among school-going children residing in low-resource communities in Uganda. METHODS: We used longitudinal data from the SMART Africa-Uganda study (2016-2022). Public primary schools were randomized to: (1) Control condition (receiving usual care comprising generalized psychosocial functioning literature), 10 schools; (2) intervention delivered via parent peers (Amaka-parents), 8 schools or; (3) intervention delivered via community healthcare workers (Amaka-community), 8 schools. All the participants were blinded. At baseline, 8- and 16-weeks postintervention initiation, caregivers completed the Iowa Conners Scale, which measured Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Impairment Rating Scale to evaluate children's overall impairment and impaired functioning with peers, siblings, and parents; impaired academic progress, self-esteem, and family functioning. Three-level linear mixed-effects models were fitted to each outcome. Pairwise comparisons of postbaseline group means within each time point were performed using Sidak's adjustment for multiple comparisons. Only children positive for ODD and other DBDs were analyzed. RESULTS: Six hundred and thirty-six children screened positive for ODDs and other DBDs (Controls: n = 243; Amaka-parents: n = 194; Amaka-community: n = 199). At 8 weeks, Amaka-parents' children had significantly lower mean scores for overall impairment compared to controls, (mean difference: -0.71, p = .001), while Amaka-community children performed better on ODD (mean difference: -0.84, p = .016). At 16 weeks, children in both groups were performing better on ODD and IRS than controls, and there were no significant differences between the two intervention groups. CONCLUSIONS: The Amaka Amasanyufu intervention was efficacious in reducing ODD and impaired functioning relative to usual care. Hence, the Amaka Amasanyufu intervention delivered either by Amaka-community or Amaka-parents has the potential to reduce negative behavioral health outcomes among young people in resource-limited settings and improve family functioning. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, ID: NCT03081195. Registered on 16 March 2017.

Family Relationships and Alcohol Consumption: Interaction with the Serotonin Transporter Promoter Polymorphism (5-HTTLPR).

INTRODUCTION: The interaction of environmental and inherited factors determines how a young person becomes involved in problem behaviours such as drinking alcohol. We have investigated whether the association of family relationships with early experience with alcohol is related to variation in the serotonin transporter gene promoter region (5-HTTLPR). METHODS: We used data of the two birth cohorts of the Estonian Personality Behaviour and Health Study (original n = 1,238) at age 15 and 18 years. Data were self-reported in a laboratory setting. RESULTS: Family relationships at age 15 years were significantly related to the frequency of drinking alcohol. Specifically, association of Warmth in Family (closeness and support within family) with consuming alcohol was in a negative, while maltreatment (misprize and abuse) in a positive relationship with alcohol consumption. At age 18 years, the effects of family relationships on consuming alcohol were lower and no longer statistically significant (p values >0.10). The associations between family relations and alcohol use at age 15 years varied by the 5-HTTLPR genotype: at this age, the impact of the family relations, both Warmth and Maltreatment, on the frequency of drinking alcohol was statistically significant among participants with the S/L genotype, and while rather similar results were obtained for the S/S genotype, no relations were apparent between family relations and consuming alcohol in subjects with the L/L genotype. CONCLUSION: These findings reveal that family relations are related to alcohol consumption, dependent upon the 5-HTTLPR genotype. This is compatible with the hypothesis that the S-allele carriers are more malleable by the environment.

Associations of youth mental health, parental psychological distress, and family relationships during the COVID-19 outbreak in China.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic has brought significant changes in society and family life, which could be particularly difficult for parents. The present study examines the relationship between youth mental health and parental psychological distress after the first peak of the COVID-19 Outbreak in China. The parent-child and marital relationships were examined as moderators of the above relationship. METHODS: Parents and their children aged 10 to 18 years were recruited for this study. The parents completed the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), and a subset of items from the questionnaire of the COVID-19 Supporting Parents, Adolescents, and Children in Epidemics (Co-SPACE) survey of parental mental health, child's psychological symptoms, parent-child, and marital relationship. Several multiple linear regressions were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: The largest variance in parental mental health was explained by the child's psychological symptoms (effect size beta = 0.27). Parent-child (effect size beta = -0.13) and marital relationship (effect size beta = -0.21) were negatively associated with parental mental health. The relationship between child's psychological symptoms and parental mental health was moderated by marital relationship (effect size beta = -0.07). Both parent-child and marital relationships presented with a significant interaction with impact scores, while only parent-child relationships with burden scores. CONCLUSIONS: Youth mental health problems were significantly associated with parental psychological symptoms during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic The parent-child and marital relationship moderated the association between youth psychological symptoms and parental mental health. Interventions for alleviating parenting stress and support services that improve family relationships may be particularly effective in reducing parental psychological distress associated with future COVID-19 or related crises.

Family resilience during the COVID-19 onset: A daily-diary inquiry into parental employment status, parent-adolescent relationships, and well-being.

COVID-19 changed the landscape of employment and financial security in the USA, contributing to multi-systemic disruptions in family life. Using dyadic, daily-diary parent-adolescent data from a nationwide American sample (18,415 daily assessments; 29 days: 4/8/2020-4/21/2020 and 5/18/2020-6/1/2020; N = 635 parent-adolescent dyads), this intensive longitudinal study investigated how COVID-19-related job loss and working-from-home (WFH) arrangements influenced parents' and children's daily affect indirectly through family functioning (i.e., parent-adolescent conflict, inter-adult conflict, and parental warmth) and whether these links varied by family socioeconomic status (SES). Parental employment status was linked to these family relational dynamics, which were then connected to parents' and adolescents' daily affect. Although SES did not moderate these links, low-income families were more likely to experience job loss, parent-adolescent conflict, and inter-adult conflict and less likely to WFH than higher-income families. As inter-relations within the family are a malleable point for intervention, clinicians working with families recovering from the fiscal impact of the COVID-19 pandemic are encouraged to use approaches that strengthen family relationships, especially between adolescents and their parents. Unemployment subsidies are discussed as a means to support families struggling with job loss, and organizations are urged to consider the benefits of WFH on employee health and work-life balance.

What could we do differently next time? Australian parents' experiences of the short-term and long-term impacts of home schooling during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 lockdowns have resulted in school closures worldwide, requiring curriculum to be delivered to children remotely (home schooling). Qualitative evidence is needed to provide important context to the positive and negative impacts of home schooling and inform strategies to support caregivers and children as the pandemic continues. This study aimed to explore the experiences of home schooling caregivers at multiple time-points during the pandemic. METHODS: Data were obtained from a longitudinal survey of a representative Australian sample conducted over 8 waves during 2020 and 2021. Participants who had home schooled at least one child during COVID-19 completed open-ended questions at Wave 4 (May 2020; n = 176), Wave 7 (June 2020; n = 145), and Wave 8 (March 2021; n = 57). Participants were asked to describe what they found positive and challenging about home schooling (Wave 4), what they would do differently if they home schooled their children again (Wave 7), and the longer-term impacts of home schooling on caregivers and children (Wave 8). RESULTS: 91% of participants at Wave 4 reported at least one positive and/or negative aspect of home schooling. At Wave 8, 32% and 29% of participants reported no long-term positive or negative impacts of home schooling respectively. Using a qualitative content analysis approach, six themes were developed from the data, encompassing the impacts of home schooling on parents, and the perceived impacts on children. Impacts on parents included connecting with children, managing the work-life-school balance, and the challenge of home schooling when parents are not teachers. Perceived impacts on children included: quieter and safer learning at home, and the negatives of managing schoolwork load and social isolation. At Wave 7, 56 participants (44%) identified at least one thing they would do differently. CONCLUSIONS: Despite some participants reporting positive experiences associated with home schooling, it remains challenging for many parents and their children. Supports for parents and children engaged in home schooling should provide clear and flexible guidance on how to balance schoolwork with other competing demands, assist parents who lack confidence in supporting their children's remote learning, and address risks associated with social isolation.

Inner child of the past: long-term protective role of childhood relationships with mothers and fathers and maternal support for mental health in middle and late adulthood.

PURPOSE: National longitudinal studies that investigate the long-term association between early family life and mental health in middle and older adulthood are limited. This study aims to fill the gap by examining the protective effect of positive childhood relationships with mothers and fathers and parental support against depression among women and men in middle and late adulthood. METHODS: The sample of 12,606 adults (7319 females; 5287 males) from the US Health and Retirement Study was nationally representative with the inclusion of 7 depression measures from 2008 to 2018. Two depression measures, CESD-8 scale and binary indicators of severe depressive symptoms, were used. Generalized estimation equations (GEE)-negative binomial models were estimated for CESD-8 and GEE-logit models were estimated for the binary indicator of severe depression. This study aimed to assess how positive parent-child relationships and maternal support protect the mental health of women and men in adulthood. Other risk and psychosocial factors, such as childhood depression, traumatic life events, stressful life events, marital status, and social support in adulthood were adjusted for. RESULTS: Positive childhood relationships with mothers, fathers, or both parents and increased maternal support were associated with a lower risk of depression among both females and males from middle to old age, even if they experienced trauma, stressful life events, divorce, singlehood, widowhood, or little social support. Females benefited more psychologically than males from positive mother-daughter relationships and high-quality relationships with both parents. However, compared to mother-child relationships, positive father-child relationships protected men better psychosocially than females. CONCLUSION: Findings underscore the importance of fathers' roles in promoting their children's, especially sons', emotional well-being. Interventions in early mother-child and father-child relationships and parental support are crucial for healthy aging in mental development.