Distribution of prostatic markers in glands of the female urethra and anterior vaginal wall-a rapid autopsy study.

BACKGROUND: There are varying reports of immunohistochemically detected prostatic marker protein distribution in glands associated with the female urethra that may be related to tissue integrity at the time of fixation. AIM: In this study we used tissue derived from rapid autopsies of female patients to determine the distribution of glandular structures expressing prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and prostate-specific acid phosphatase (PSAP) along the female urethra and in surrounding tissues, including the anterior vaginal wall (AVW). METHODS: Tissue blocks from 7 donors that contained the entire urethra and adjacent AVW were analyzed. These tissue samples were fixed within 4-12 hours of death and divided into 5-mm transverse slices that were paraffin embedded. Sections cut from each slice were immunolabeled for PSA or PSAP and a neighboring section was stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The sections were reviewed by light microscopy and analyzed using QuPath software. OBSERVATIONS: In tissue from all donors, glandular structures expressing PSA and/or PSAP were located within the wall of the urethra and were present along its whole length. RESULTS: In the proximal half of the urethra from all donors, small glands expressing PSAP, but not PSA, were observed adjacent to the and emptying into the lumen. In the distal half of the urethra from 5 of the 7 donors, tubuloacinar structures lined by a glandular epithelium expressed both PSA and PSAP. In addition, columnar cells at the surface of structures with a multilayered transitional epithelium in the distal half of the urethra from all donors expressed PSAP. No glands expressing PSA or PSAP were found in tissues surrounding the urethra, including the AVW. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Greater understanding of the distribution of urethral glands expressing prostatic proteins in female patients is important because these glands are reported to contribute to the female sexual response and to urethral pathology, including urethral cysts, diverticula, and adenocarcinoma. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS: Strengths of the present study include the use of rapid autopsy to minimize protein degradation and autolysis, and the preparation of large tissue sections to demonstrate precise anatomical relations within all the tissues surrounding the urethral lumen. Limitations include the sample size and that all donors had advanced malignancy and had undergone previous therapy which may have had unknown tissue effects. CONCLUSION: Proximal and distal glands expressing prostate-specific proteins were observed in tissue from all donors, and these glands were located only within the wall of the urethra.

Female Hyperplastic PSA-Positive Prostate Tissue in the Bladder Neck.

INTRODUCTION: We report a rare case of Skene's gland hyperplasia where the serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level was measurable. CASE PRESENTATION: The patient was a 91-year-old woman with a suspected bladder mass at the bladder trigone. Cystoscopy revealed a suspected lesion and an obstructed anterior bladder neck with a large mass located from a "7 o'clock" to "11 o'clock" area. The photodynamic diagnosis was negative. Transurethral subtotal resection of the mass was performed. The serum PSA level at the third postoperative day was 0.08 ng/mL. Postoperative cystography showed no contrast media extravasation. Thus, histopathology revealed massive adenomyomatous hyperplasia of the Skene's gland, as well as nondysplastic urothelium and glandular and squamous epithelium. Immunohistochemistry showed strong PSA and NKX3.1 positivity, confirming the diagnosis of "female prostate." FISH analysis showed only green signals that confirm an XX karyotype. In follow-up to 17 months, there was no disease recurrence or need for a urinary catheter. CONCLUSION: Effective therapeutic strategies for these lesions are unknown due to the absence of reported cases. Given the patient's age, we assumed that bladder neck resection by transurethral resection with a controlled level of serum PSA would be a suitable therapeutic approach.

The prostate in women: an updated histological and immunohistochemical profile of the female periurethral glands and their relationship to an implanted midurethral sling.

BACKGROUND: There is evidence of glandular tissue in the region of the anterior vaginal wall-female periurethral tissue (AVW-FPT) that has similar morphology and immunohistochemistry to the prostate in men. Surgical injury to this tissue has been suggested as a potential cause of sexual dysfunction following midurethral sling (MUS) procedures. However, the anatomy and embryology of these glands have not been fully resolved. This has led to difficulties in classifying this tissue as a prostate and defining its clinical significance related to MUS procedures. AIM: To describe the histological and immunohistochemical characteristics of the female periurethral glands using markers of prostate tissue and innervation and to examine their anatomical relationships to an implanted MUS. METHODS: Using gross and fine dissection, the AVW-FPT was dissected from 9 cadavers. Prior to dissection, 2 cadavers underwent simulation of the MUS procedure by a urogynecologist. Samples were paraffin embedded and serially sectioned. Immunohistochemistry was performed using markers of prostate tissue and innervation. OUTCOMES: Immunohistochemical localization of markers for prostatic tissue and innervation of the glandular tissue of the AVW-FPT, including the region of MUS implantation. RESULTS: Female periurethral glands were immunoreactive for markers of male prostatic tissue, including prostate-specific antigen, androgen receptor, HOXB13, and NKX3.1. Markers of innervation (protein gene product 9.5, choline acetyl transferase, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide) also localized to certain regions of the glandular tissue and associated blood supply. Surgical simulation of the MUS procedure demonstrated that some periurethral glands are located in close proximity to an implanted sling. CLINICAL TRANSLATION: The AVW-FPT contains glandular tissue in the surgical field of MUS implantation. Iatrogenic damage to the female periurethral glands and the associated innervation during surgery could explain the negative impacts on sexual dysfunction reported following MUS procedures. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS: This is the first study to characterize the female periurethral glands using markers of prostatic tissue in concert with markers of general and autonomic innervation and characterize their anatomical relationships within the surgical field of MUS implantation. The small sample size is a limitation of this study. CONCLUSION: We provide further evidence that the AVW-FPT contains innervated glands that are phenotypically similar to the male prostate and may share a common embryonic origin. The microscopic and immunohistochemical features of the periurethral glands may be indicative of their functional capacity in sexual responses. The location of these glands in the surgical field of MUS procedures underscores the clinical significance of this tissue.

Neonatal exposure to aluminum chloride predisposes adult and senile gerbils to the prostatic hyperplasia.

Several pollutants can alter neonatal prostatic development predisposing this gland to diseases. The toxicity and endocrine disrupting potential of aluminum has been reported in many organs, but little is known about its effects on the prostate. This study aimed to evaluate the effects that aluminum neonatal exposure can cause in the male ventral prostate and in the female prostate of adult and senile gerbils. Male and female pups were treated orally with aluminum chloride (10 mg/kg) from the 1st to the 14th day life. After treatment, the animals were aged until they reached 90 days or 1 year of life. The prostate glands were dissected out and submitted to morphological, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural analyses. Ventral prostates of adult males showed moderate hyperplasia and increased epithelial proliferation not associated with androgen receptor (AR) deregulation. On the other hand, senile males showed intense prostatic hyperplasia, and increased cell proliferation and epithelial AR regulation. Additionally, at both ages, there was a reduction in the prostate secretory function. The morphological changes observed in the female prostate were like those found in males. However, in adult females, prostatic hyperplasia was accompanied by a lower regulation of AR and estrogen receptor alpha, while in senile females, intense hyperplastic growth was associated with an increase in estrogen receptor alpha and a reduction in stromal AR. These results demonstrate that aluminum chloride neonatal exposure alters the hormonal regulation of the male and female prostate, inducing tissue damage that occurs in adulthood and intensifies during aging.

Histological investigation in aging male and female gerbil prostates after prenatal exposure to pequi (Caryocar brasiliense Cambess) oil and 17α-ethinylestradiol.

The female prostate, also known as Skene's gland, is present in both humans and rodents. Prenatal exposure to ethinylestradiol (EE2), a synthetic estrogen found in oral contraceptives, induces pormotes neoplasic prostate lesions in gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). Conversely, pequi oil (Pe), extracted from the Brazilian Cerrado fruit, has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties, mitigates risks associated with chronic diseases related to lifestyle and aging. This study evaluates the impact of prenatal exposure to Pe (300 mg/kg) on senile gerbil offspring's male and female prostates under normal conditions and EE2 exposure (15 µg/kg/day). Histological and morphometric analyses revealed that Pe reduced male body weight and prostate epithelial height, along with a thinner muscle layer. In females, EE2 exposure reduced prostatic weight, while Pe exposure lowered epithelial height and the relative stromal compartment volume, increasing the muscle layer. Pequi oil holds potential in mitigating alterations induced by exposure to the endocrine disruptor EE2.

Enhanced visualization of female squirting.

INTRODUCTION: Squirting is the involuntary expulsion of fluid from the female urethra following stimulation of the anterior vaginal wall before or during orgasm. The mechanism underlying squirting has not been established. PURPOSE: To elucidate the mechanism of squirting. METHODS: The subjects in the current study were women who were able to squirt. They were not sex workers. A urethral catheter was inserted before sexual stimulation and the bladder was emptied. Then, a mixture of indigo carmine (10 ml) and saline (40 ml) was injected into the bladder. Sexual stimulation was provided to facilitate squirting, which was videotaped and verified. The secretions were collected in sterile cups, and prostate specific antigen (PSA) and glucose levels were measured. RESULTS: Five women (2 in the 30s, 2 in the 40s, and 1 in the 50s) participated in this study. All women were able to squirt; three squirted only with manual sexual stimulation and two with penetrative sexual stimulation. The discharged fluid was blue in all cases, confirming the bladder as the source. The fluid was PSA-positive in four patients. CONCLUSIONS: The main component of squirt fluid is urine, but may also contain fluid from Skene's glands (female prostate). This is the first report in which visualization of squirting was enhanced.

Female ejaculation and squirting as similar but completely different phenomena: A narrative review of current research.

Women expel fluids of various quantities and compositions from the urethra during sexual arousal and orgasm. These are classified as either female ejaculation (FE) or squirting (SQ). The aim of our analysis was to present evidence that FE and SQ are similar but etiologically different phenomena. A review of studies was performed on fluids expelled from the urogenital tract during female sexual activities using the Web of Knowledge™ (Web of Science Core Collection) and MEDLINE (Ovid) databases from 1946 to 2021. Until 2011, all female orgasmic expulsions of fluids were referred to as FE. The fluid was known to be either from the paraurethral glands or as a result of coital incontinence. At present, SQ is considered as a transurethral expulsion of approximately 10 milliliters or more of transparent fluid, while FE is considered as a secretion of a few milliliters of thick fluid. The fluid in SQ is similar to urine and is expelled by the urinary bladder. The secretion in FE originates from the paraurethral glands and contains a high concentration of prostate-specific antigen. Both phenomena can occur simultaneously. The mechanisms underlying SQ and FE are entirely different. SQ is a massive transurethral orgasmic expulsion from the urinary bladder, while FE is the secretion of a very small amount of fluid from the paraurethral glands.

Prolactin promotes a partial recovery from the atrophy of both male and female gerbil prostates caused by castration.

BACKGROUND: The male and female prostates are controlled by steroid hormones, suffering important morphological and physiological changes after castration. Prolactin is involved in the regulation of the male prostate, having already been identified in the tissue, acting through its receptor PRLR. In the Mongolian gerbil, in addition to the male prostate, the female prostate is also well developed and active in its secretion processes. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of exposure to exogenous prolactin in the prostate of both intact and castrated male and female gerbils in order to establish if prolactin administration can sustain prostate cell activity in conditions of sexual hormone deprivation. METHODS: The morphological analyses were performed by biometric analysis, lesion histological analysis and morphometric-stereological aspects. In addition, immune-cytochemical tests were performed for prolactin and its receptor, as well as for the receptors of androgen and oestrogen and serum prolactin dosage. All data were submitted to ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis tests for comparison between groups. P < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. RESULTS: The results showed a strong influence of prolactin on the morphology of the prostate, with the development of important epithelial alterations, after only 3 days of administration, and an expressive epithelial cell discard process after 30 days of administration. Prolactin acts in synergy with testosterone in males and mainly with oestrogens in females, establishing different steroid hormonal receptor immunoreactivity according to sex. It was also demonstrated that prolactin can assist in the recovery from some atrophic effects caused in the gland after castration, without causing additional tissue damage. CONCLUSIONS: The prolactin and its receptor are involved in the maintenance of the homeostasis of male and female gerbils, and also cause distinct histological alterations after exogenous exposure for 3 and 30 days. The effects of prolactin are related to its joint action on androgens and oestrogens and it can also assist in the recovery from the atrophic effects of castration.

Inflammatory repercussions in female steroid responsive glands after perinatal exposure to bisphenol A and 17-ß estradiol.

The mammary gland (MG) and female prostate are plastic reproductive organs which are highly responsive to hormones. Thus, endocrine disruptors, such as bisphenol A (BPA) and exogenous estrogens, negatively affect glandular homeostasis. In addition to previously described alterations, changes in inflammatory markers expression also trigger the development of a microenvironment that contributes to tumor progression. The current work aimed to evaluate the inflammatory responses of the MG and prostate gland to BPA (50 µg/kg) and 17-ß estradiol (35 µg/kg) exposure during the perinatal window of susceptibility. The results showed that at 6 months of age there was an increase in the number of phospho-STAT3 (P-STAT3) positive cells in the female prostate from animals perinatally exposed to 50 µg/kg BPA daily. In addition, the number of macrophages increased in these animals in comparison with nonexposed animals, as shown by the F4/80 marker. Despite an increase in the incidence of lobuloalveolar and intraductal hyperplasia, the MG did not show any difference in the expression of the four inflammatory markers evaluated: tumor necrosis factor-α, COX-2, P-STAT3, and F4/80. Analysis of both glands from the same animal led to the conclusion that exposure to endocrine disruptors during the perinatal window of susceptibility leads to different inflammatory responses in different reproductive organs. As the prostate is more susceptible to these inflammatory mechanisms, it is reasonable to affirm that possible neoplastic alterations in this organ are related to changes in the inflammatory pattern of the stroma, a characteristic that is not evident in the MG.

A comparison of prostatic development in xenografts of human fetal prostate and human female fetal proximal urethra grown in dihydrotestosterone-treated hosts.

The goal of this paper is to explore the ability of the human female urogenital sinus immediately below the bladder (proximal urethra) to undergo prostatic development in response to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). To establish this idea, xenografts of human fetal female proximal urethra were grown in castrated nude mouse hosts receiving a subcutaneous DHT pellet. To verify the prostatic nature of the resultant glands, DHT-treated human fetal female urethral xenografts were compared with human fetal prostatic xenografts (derived from male specimens) grown in untreated and DHT-treated castrated mouse hosts and human fetal female proximal urethral xenografts grown in untreated castrated hosts. The resultant glands observed in DHT-treated human fetal female proximal urethral xenografts expressed 3 prostate-specific markers, NKX3.1, prostate specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase as well as the androgen receptor. Glands induced by DHT exhibited a protein expression profile of additional immunohistochemical markers (seven keratins, RUNX1, ESR2, TP63 and FOXA1) consistent with the unique spatial pattern of these proteins in prostatic ducts. Xenografts of human fetal female proximal urethra grown in DHT-treated hosts also expressed one of the salient features of prostatic development, namely androgen responsiveness. The experimental induction of prostatic differentiation from human fetal female proximal urethra makes possible future in-depth analysis of the molecular pathways directly involved in initiation of human prostatic development and subsequent epithelial differentiation, and more important whether the molecular pathways involved in human prostatic development are similar/identical versus different from that in murine prostatic development.

Female ejaculation: An update on anatomy, history, and controversies.

Female ejaculation is a contentious topic. From a review of the literature, history indicates that it is not a modern concept; some females were aware of it in times past without understanding the role of the fluid or composition of the ejaculate. Over time, scholars experimented, mainly with anatomical studies, in an attempt to identify the source of the ejaculate and explore its physiological and anatomical benefits for the female sexual experience. Despite these studies, views about female ejaculation remain controversial and inconsistent, with no clear conclusion as to its function. This review discusses the history of studies of female ejaculation and presents various hypotheses from an anatomical and physiological perspective. After reviewing 44 publications from 1889 to 2019, it became apparent that clinical and anatomical studies conducted during recent decades provide substantial evidence in support of the female ejaculatory phenomenon. Anatomical studies have shown that the ejaculate originates in the paraurethral (Skene's) glands, but its composition has been debated. Female ejaculate differs from urine in its creatinine and urea concentrations. The fluid also contains prostate specific antigen (PSA) and could have antibacterial properties that serve to protect the urethra. While the specific function of female ejaculation remains a topic of debate, there is sufficient evidence to support the existence of the phenomenon.

Postnatal exposure to finasteride causes different effects on the prostate of male and female gerbils.

The development and maintenance of prostate function depend on a fine balance between oestrogen and androgen levels. Finasteride inhibits 5α-reductase, which is responsible for the conversion of testosterone into its most active form, dihydrotestosterone. Enzymes that metabolize these hormones have a highly relevant role in both the normal prostate metabolism and in the occurrence of pathological conditions. There are few studies on the impact of finasteride on male prostate development and fewer studies on the female prostate and possible intersexual differences. Therefore, we treated male and female gerbils from 7 to 14 days in postnatal life with a high dose of finasteride (500 µg/kg/day); the prostate complexes were then removed and submitted to immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and three-dimensional reconstruction. In addition, hormonal serum dosages were administered. Treatment with finasteride resulted in an increased thickness of the periductal smooth musculature in the prostate of both male and female gerbils, such as well as a reduction in the thickness of developing prostate alveoli in both sexes. In addition, intersexual differences were observed as increased epithelial proliferation and decreases in the number of developing alveoli in females. Together, the data indicate that postnatal exposure to finasteride causes greater changes in the female gerbil prostate than in the male.

Differences between male and female prostates in terms of physiology, sensitivity to chemicals and pathogenesis-A review in a rodent model.

The prostate is a gland that is not exclusively present in males, being also found in females of several mammalian species, including humans. There is evidence that the prostate in both sexes is affected by the same pathologies such as prostatitis, benign alterations and even cancer. In view of the difficulties of manipulating the prostate gland, the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus), a rodent species with high incidence of functional prostates in females, is widely used in studies of the female prostate. However, despite knowing much about the similarities between the female and male prostate, little emphasis has been placed on the differences between them. This review investigates the intersex differences in prostate development, physiology and pathogenesis. The female prostate develops earlier than in males and studies indicate that it is more sensitive to oestrogens than the male prostate, as well as being more sensitive to exposure to xenoestrogens, such as Bisphenol A and methylparaben, with a higher susceptibility to benign lesions in the adult and senile prostate than in males. In addition, the female prostate is impacted by pregnancy and the oestrous cycle, and is also dependent on progesterone. The peculiarities of the female prostate raise concerns about the risk of it undergoing neglected changes as a result of environmental chemicals, since safe dosages are established exclusively for the male prostate.

Aluminum exposure promotes histopathological and pro-oxidant damage to the prostate and gonads of male and female adult gerbils.

Since the industrial revolution, all living beings have become susceptible to numerous sources of aluminum (Al) exposure. In addition to causing proven toxicity in many organs and systems, Al can also have estrogenic activity when absorbed by the body. The reproductive organs are commonly affected by environmental pollutants with estrogenic activity, but little is known about the effects of Al on the prostate and gonads. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of subchronic Al exposure on the prostate and gonads of male and female adult gerbils. After 30 days of oral exposure to aluminum chloride (10 mg/kg/day), the animals were euthanized and the organs processed for cytochemical, ultrastructural, and biochemical assays. Ventral male prostates exposed to Al became hyperplastic and showed signs of cell aging. In addition, the male prostate showed decreased catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. The female prostate was structurally more affected than the ventral male prostate, since it presented hyperplasia and punctual foci of inflammation and prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. However, CAT and SOD activities did not change in this gland. In the testis, Al promoted immature germ cell detachment and degeneration, as well as reduced CAT activity. In the ovaries, Al caused reduction in folliculogenesis and decreased SOD activity. Together, these results indicate that Al is toxic to the prostate and gonads of adult gerbils and that continuous exposure to this metal can impair the fertility of individuals of both sexes.

Low-dose in utero exposure to finasteride promotes developmental changes in both male and female gerbil prostates.

The prostate is an accessory reproductive gland that is sensitive to the action of exogenous compounds known as endocrine disrupters that alter normal hormonal function. Finasteride is a widely used chemical that acts to inhibit the conversion of testosterone in its most active form, dihydrotestosterone. It is known that intrauterine exposure to finasteride causes changes in the male prostate even at low dosages; however, it is not known whether these dosages are capable of causing changes in the female prostate, which is present in a large number of mammalian species, including humans. In the present study, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, serological dosages, and three-dimensional reconstruction techniques were employed to evaluate the effects of intrauterine exposure to a low dose of finasteride (100 µg.BW/d) on postnatal prostate development in male and female Mongolian gerbils. The results indicate that the gerbil female prostate also undergoes alterations following intrauterine exposure to finasteride, exhibiting a thickening of periductal smooth muscle and increased stromal proliferation. There are also intersex differences in the impact of exposure on the expression of the androgen receptor, which was increased in males, and of the estrogen-α receptor, which was decreased in the male prostate but unchanged in females. Altogether, this study indicates there are sex differences in the effects of finasteride exposure even at low dosages.

Aluminum disrupts the prenatal development of the male and female gerbil prostate (Meriones unguiculatus).

Normal prostate development is highly dependent of an equilibrated hormonal regulation, so that sensible interferences during this period may predispose the gland to lesions during aging. Industrial activities have increased the exposure of this gland to active elements found in environment, such as aluminum (Al). Al presents toxic effect for living beings, having the potential to disrupt the development and growth of several organs and systems. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate whether the prenatal exposure to Al may alter the development and morphophysiology of the gerbil prostate (Meriones unguiculatus). Pregnant females were orally exposed to aluminum chloride (100 mg/kg/day) from 17th to 21th gestational day. Following the birth, the male and female pups were euthanized with 1 (PN1) and 90-days-old (PN90). The prostates were collected for biometrical, three-dimensional reconstruction, morphometrical, stereological, and immunohistochemical analysis. Results indicated that Al decreases the body weight of PN1 males and females, and also reduce the anogenital distance of PN1 females. Moreover, Al changed the prostate developmental patterns of PN1 animals, causing an increase in proliferative status and decreasing androgen receptor immunostaining. The results suggest that Al-promoted changes were permanent, since low androgen receptor frequency, increased serum testosterone levels and high proliferation index were observed in adult gerbils. This study demonstrated that body and prostatic changes were more pronounced in females than in males, and that Al performed as an endocrine-disrupting chemical in gerbils.

Differential diagnostics of female "sexual" fluids: a narrative review.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: Women expel various kinds of fluids during sexual activities. These are manifestations of sexual arousal and orgasm or coital incontinence. This study is aimed at suggesting a diagnostic scheme to differentiate among these phenomena. METHODS: Web of Science and Ovid (MEDLINE) databases were systematically searched from 1950 to 2017 for articles on various fluid expulsion phenomena in women during sexual activities, which contain relevant information on sources and composition of the expelled fluids. RESULTS: An ultra-filtrate of blood plasma of variable quantity, which is composed of transvaginal transudate at sexual stimulation, enables vaginal lubrication. Female ejaculation (FE) is the secretion of a few milliliters of thick, milky fluid by the female prostate (Skene's glands) during orgasm, which contains prostate-specific antigen. Squirting (SQ) is defined as the orgasmic transurethral expulsion of tenths of milliliters of a form of urine containing various concentrations of urea, creatinine, and uric acid. FE and SQ are two phenomena with different mechanisms. Coital incontinence (CI) could be classified into penetration and orgasm forms, which could be associated with stress urinary incontinence or detrusor hyperactivity. CONCLUSION: Squirting, FE, and CI are different phenomena with various mechanisms and could be differentiated according to source, quantity, expulsion mechanism, and subjective feelings during sexual activities.

Female prostate: historical, developmental, and morphological perspectives.

The female prostate was first described by Reijnier de Graaf in 1672, and even after several years this gland is still a matter of controversy. Part of this is because the biological function of this female gland is unclear. Moreover, when compared with the male prostate, the existence of this organ in females does not make sense, mainly when we consider that the major function of this gland is to produce a secretion that is responsible for guarantee the sperm survival and assure the reproductive success. However, even under a controversy field, we now have a lot of scientific information which enhances our knowledge of several important biological aspects of this gland. It is clear that this gland is found in some female mammals including humans, rodents, rabbits, bats, and dogs. Several studies with rodents showed that the female prostate is homolog of the male prostate, showing strong macroscopic and microscopic similarities with the ventral lobe of males. Besides these aspects, there are several studies reporting that diseases such as cysts, hyperplasia, and carcinoma may affect the female prostate. Therefore, although diseases involving the female prostate are rare, the susceptibility of this organ to develop lesions must be considered, especially in our recent years in which the exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals has greatly increased. Finally, further studies will be necessary to enhance our understanding about this gland, mainly of the developmental, evolutionary, and biological functions.

Intrauterine exposure to oestradiol promotes sex-specific differential effects on the prostatic development of neonate gerbils.

The effects of intrauterine exposure to 17ß-oestradiol (E2) are well studied for the male prostate and there are accumulating evidences that the exposure to high dosages leads to a hypomorphic development. However, there is a lack of information about the effects of intrauterine exposure to E2 in the prostate of rodent females, and such research becomes relevant in view of the presence of functional prostate in a proportion of women, and the morphophysiological similarities between the prostate of female rodents and the prostate of women. This study uses histochemical, immunohistochemical, immunofluorescence and three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction techniques to evaluate the effects of intrauterine exposure to E2 (500 BW/d) on neonatal prostate development in both male and female gerbils. It was verified that intrauterine exposure to E2 promotes epithelial proliferation and growth of prostatic budding in females, whereas in males the prostatic budding shows hypomorphic growth in the VMP (Ventral Mesenchymal Pad) as well as reduced epithelial proliferation. Together, the data demonstrate that intrauterine exposure to E2 causes different effects on male and female prostates of the gerbil even at the early postnatal development of the gland.

Distribution of thyroid hormone and thyrotropin receptors in reproductive tissues of adult female rabbits.

PURPOSE: Thyroid dysfunctions are related to anovulation, miscarriages, and infertility in women and laboratory animals. Mechanisms associated with these effects are unknown, although indirect or direct actions of thyroid hormones and thyrotropin could be assumed. The present study aimed to identify the distribution of thyroid hormones (TRs) and thyrotropin (TSHR) receptors in reproductive organs of female rabbits. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ovary of virgin and pregnant rabbits, as well as the oviduct, uterus, and vagina of virgin rabbits were excised, histologically processed, and cut. Slices from these organs were used for immunohistochemical studies for TRα1-2, TRß1, and TSHR. RESULTS: The presence of TRs and TSHR was found in the primordial, primary, secondary, tertiary, and Graafian follicles of virgin rabbits, as well as in the corpora lutea, corpora albicans, and wall of hemorrhagic cysts of pregnant rabbits. Oviductal regions (fimbria-infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus, and utero-tubal junction), uterus (endometrium and myometrium), and vagina (abdominal, pelvic, and perineal portions) of virgin rabbits showed anti-TRs and anti-TSHR immunoreactivity. Additionally, the distal urethra, paravaginal ganglia, levator ani and iliococcygeus muscles, dorsal nerve and body of the clitoris, perigenital skin, and prostate had TRs and TSHR. CONCLUSIONS: The wide presence of TRs and TSHR in female reproductive organs suggests varied effects of thyroid hormones and thyrotropin in reproduction.