Food environment research in Canada: a rapid review of methodologies and measures deployed between 2010 and 2021.

Numerous research methodologies have been used to examine food environments. Existing reviews synthesizing food environment measures have examined a limited number of domains or settings and none have specifically targeted Canada. This rapid review aimed to 1) map research methodologies and measures that have been used to assess food environments; 2) examine what food environment dimensions and equity related-factors have been assessed; and 3) identify research gaps and priorities to guide future research. A systematic search of primary articles evaluating the Canadian food environment in a real-world setting was conducted. Publications in English or French published in peer-reviewed journals between January 1 2010 and June 17 2021 and indexed in Web of Science, CAB Abstracts and Ovid MEDLINE were considered. The search strategy adapted an internationally-adopted food environment monitoring framework covering 7 domains (Food Marketing; Labelling; Prices; Provision; Composition; Retail; and Trade and Investment). The final sample included 220 articles. Overall, Trade and Investment (1%, n = 2), Labelling (7%, n = 15) and, to a lesser extent, Prices (14%, n = 30) were the least studied domains in Canada. Among Provision articles, healthcare (2%, n = 1) settings were underrepresented compared to school (67%, n = 28) and recreation and sport (24%, n = 10) settings, as was the food service industry (14%, n = 6) compared to grocery stores (86%, n = 36) in the Composition domain. The study identified a vast selection of measures employed in Canada overall and within single domains. Equity-related factors were only examined in half of articles (n = 108), mostly related to Retail (n = 81). A number of gaps remain that prevent a holistic and systems-level analysis of food environments in Canada. As Canada continues to implement policies to improve the quality of food environments in order to improve dietary patterns, targeted research to address identified gaps and harmonize methods across studies will help evaluate policy impact over time.

Barriers and enablers to the family meal across time; a grounded theory study comparing South Australian parents' perspectives.

Family meals are positively associated with numerous beneficial health and social outcomes. Current discourse however claims that parents are faced with numerous barriers when trying to bring the family together to share a meal. Solutions for overcoming barriers to a positive shared family meal are often individualistic and do not address the systemic pressures and burdens families have faced for decades. The aim of this study was to explore the systemic and novel barriers and enablers to shared family meals as experienced by families across time. To achieve this, a qualitative study informed by grounded theory was conducted. Parents of South Australian families were recruited and interviewed in the 1990s, and a new sample of parents were recruited and interviewed in 2020. Transcripts were analysed using grounded theory and comparative analysis methods. Thirty-two parents from 16 families were interviewed in the 1990s, and 22 parents from 10 families in 2020. Ten factors were identified presenting as either enablers or barriers to the family meal, depending on the context they were experienced. Barriers and enablers were largely consistent across time. Scheduling and flexibility, children's disruptions and children's independence, privileges required to have family meals and motivation and commitment to the family meal were identified as persistent enablers and barriers across time. These findings indicate that parents are faced with similar challenges they have been facing for decades and are still not being adequately supported to execute family meals regularly. Recognising that factors present as either barriers or enablers to the family meal provides us with opportunities to transform barriers to enablers and support families to have regular, meaningful family meals.

The family meal, a ritual frozen in time; an Australian grounded theory study.

Family meals are recognized as an opportunity to promote the health of families. Popular discourse posits that changes to contemporary family life have made family meals harder to achieve and promotion of the 'traditional' family meal may be adding pressures to contemporary families. While research has been conducted on family meals over the last three decades, there is no explicit investigation of the experiences and practices of family meals over this time. Understanding the evolution of family meal practices across time is important for developing achievable expectations in relation to this ritual. Qualitative interviews were conducted with a diverse population of South Australian parents in the 1990s (n = 32) and with a separate population of parents in 2020 (n = 22) to gather their experiences of family meal practices. A comparative analysis, informed by grounded theory, was undertaken to identify similarities and differences in experiences across these two time periods. The results indicated stability in many family meal experiences across time, particularly in their value and significance in family life. Negotiations balancing time, cost, food preferences and responsibility persisted. The stability of family meal values and practices is important to consider when making recommendations, designing interventions and creating services targeting the family meal.

Exploring the social norms regarding parents' food provision in Australia using story completion methodology.

Children's diets are not aligned with dietary guidelines, with the social context including social norms being one factor influencing parents' food provision. Little is known about social norms in broad society that parents face when providing food to children. We aimed to determine the social norms surrounding family food provision from the perspectives of Australian adults. This qualitative study used story completion methodology via an online survey to gather hypothetical stories from adults (≥18 years). Participants were presented with a story stem focusing on home food provision. Stories (i.e. data) were coded and analysed using thematic analysis. Five themes were identified from the data (N = 75); 1. Providing a healthy snack, 2. Providing justification for the provision of unhealthy convenience foods, 3. Increasing child autonomy in food provision, 4. Mealtimes are a social occasion, and 5. Contextual factors influencing food provision and social norms. From these themes, social norms were identified around providing healthy foods and justifying non-adherence to healthy eating guidelines and evolution of family life and mealtime values. This study provides new knowledge that there are social norms around parents providing healthy foods and needing to justify non-adherence to healthy eating guidelines, as well as the norm that family life and mealtime values are evolving. This highlights the need to consider the broader context that influences food choices. Furthermore, this study highlights the utility of novel methods in this field.

The Family Meal Framework: A grounded theory study conceptualising the work that underpins the family meal.

The family meal has been recognised as an integral part of family life. With the positive health outcomes associated with the family meal, it has been proposed as a strategy for encouraging health-promoting behaviours. However, a detailed understanding of the physical and mental work required to execute the family meal is lacking. The aim of this research was to conduct a grounded theory study to understand the components required to successfully execute the family meal. Two temporal data sets (1993-4/2020) in which diverse participants were sampled were used for this study. Methods used to conduct qualitative interviews with parents in the 1990s were mirrored in the conduct of qualitative interviews with parents in 2020. The interview data was analysed drawing on grounded theory methodology and methods. The entire sample included 54 parents from 28 families. A conceptual framework, 'The Family Meal Framework', was developed from the analyses. The five main components of The Framework are the cognitions (invisible work considering the needs of the family), actions (physical tasks required for the family meal), outcomes (the event of the family meal), the beliefs and feelings (expectations and attitudes toward the family meal), and the person(s) responsible (who undertakes the work). This framework provides a novel theory describing the reactive, cyclical nature of the work required to execute the family meal. This new understanding provides discrete opportunities for intervention in family meal research, practice, policy and promotion.

Foods provided to children in family day care: an observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the quality and quantity of foods and beverages provided to children aged 0-5 years in family day care and identify structural and sociodemographic factors associated with the nutritional quality of food provided. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study measured the food and beverages provided to children using weighed food records. The number of serves from different food groups was calculated according to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, and a healthy food provision index score was created. Associations between structural and sociodemographic factors and healthy food provision index scores were analysed using linear mixed models. SETTING: Family day care services in two large geographic areas in New South Wales, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: One hundred and four children in thirty-three family day care services. RESULTS: During attendance at childcare, most children met recommended servings of fruit but not dairy, vegetables, lean meat and meat alternatives and wholegrains. Discretionary foods exceeded recommendations. Children's age, socio-economic status and the type of main meal provided were significantly associated with the healthy food provision index score. CONCLUSIONS: Foods provided to children in family day care are aligned with dietary recommendations for fruit but not vegetables, dairy, lean meat and meat alternatives, wholegrains or discretionary foods. Interventions to promote healthy eating are needed to support families and educators to improve the nutritional quality of food provided to children.

Measuring food provision in Western Australian long day care (LDC) services: a weighed food record method/protocol at a service level.

BACKGROUND: There are currently 1.3 million children utilising Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services in Australia. Long day care (LDC), family day care and out of school hours care currently provide this service in different environments. This research reports findings from a LDC perspective. Children can consume 40-67% of their food intake whilst at LDC services, this highlights the importance of monitoring food provision at a service level. There are several methods to measure food provision which typically focus on intake at an individual level. There is limited evidence of measuring food provision accurately at a service level and for young children. Accurate and consistent dietary assessment methods are required to determine compliance with dietary guidelines and to provide rigour for comparison between studies. METHODS: Convenience sampling was used to recruit 30 LDC services and food provision assessed over two consecutive days. To ensure consistency, trained researchers weighed raw food ingredients used in food preparation at each service. Food and food weights were allocated to food groups to determine average serves of food group provision at morning tea, lunch and afternoon tea per child. All data were entered into Foodworks for dietary analysis and compliance with dietary guidelines was assessed using Wilcoxon signed-rank and one-sample t-tests (SPSS). DISCUSSION: This paper outlines the process of data collection for the measurement and auditing of food provision and food waste at a service level. There is an urgent need to ensure that food provision at a service level complies with current dietary guidelines and is accurately assessed. Following a standard method of data collection will allow a more accurate comparison between studies and allow change to be monitored more accurately over time to guide decision makers. TRIAL REGISTRATION: As this research project is conducted at a service level and not a clinical trial, registration was not required.

The role of grandparents as providers of food to their grandchildren.

The increasing reliance on grandparents as a source of childcare means that child dietary intake, child obesity, and child health may be increasingly influenced by grandparents' food provision. Although calls have been made for research that explores the role of grandparents in shaping children's eating behaviours, results of research assessing the types of foods provided by grandparents have been limited in focus to fruit and vegetables or energy-dense nutrient-poor foods. In addition, research assessing the determinants of food provision is lacking. Such information is important in identifying targets for education programs that aim to improve grandparents' food provision practices. Accordingly, the present study assessed the extent to which Australian grandparents are providing meals and snacks for their grandchildren, the types of foods and beverages being provided, and the determinants of provision. Grandparents providing regular childcare (i.e., ≥3 h every week) to at least one grandchild aged 3-14 years were recruited (n = 1076; 60% female; age = 65.07 years (SD = 6.68)). Results revealed that a majority of grandparents (82%) reported providing their grandchild with snacks. Nearly one-fifth (18%) of grandparents reported providing breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks. The provision of main meals occurred one to three times a week and snack provision occurred two to six times a week. Although grandparents generally provided a healthy food environment, practices were found to differ by the sociodemographic characteristics (sex, age, and socioeconomic status) of grandparent caregivers and by the sex and age of the grandchild in their care. Results suggest that grandparents should be considered crucial to efforts to increase healthy eating in children and address childhood obesity.

National Trends in Food Insecurity and Congregation-Based Food Provision between 1998 and 2012.

Food insecurity has been a persistent problem in the U.S., and yet over the past three decades, federally funded food programs have become more restrictive. Scholars and policymakers have inquired whether the nonprofit sector is increasing its food provision activities to address this unmet need. This study analyzes data from the U.S. Census and a nationally representative survey of religious congregations in the U.S. to examine trends in food insecurity and congregation-based food provision between 1998 and 2012. The objective of the study is to investigate the extent to which congregation-based food provision fluctuated with national food insecurity prevalence for the overall population, and for subgroups vulnerable to this condition. Results show an over-time correspondence between the prevalence of food-insecure households and the prevalence of congregations that provide food. Parallel patterns are observed between food insecurity in disproportionately affected subpopulations (e.g., African-Americans and immigrants) and food provision in the congregations likely to serve those households. These findings indicate that congregations are helping meet the needs of food-insecure households. However, research suggests that congregations and nonprofits are not an adequate substitute for federally funded programs. Policy recommendations include expanding access to federally funded programs like the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) to more immigrants and other groups vulnerable to food insecurity, as well as providing more systematic financial or federal support and quality control of congregation-based efforts.

[Features of clinical nutrition of patients with anemia in penitentiary institutions].

The problem of psychological and somatic health of convicts is very important for society. Nutrition is one of the factors directly affecting it. In order to respect the rights and legitimate interests of this category of persons in the Russian Federation nowadays, various nutritional standards are distinguished depending on gender, age, health, working conditions, etc. The aim of the work was to evaluate the clinical nutrition of convicted patients with anemia sentenced to imprisonment. Material and methods. An analysis of more than 100 weekly layouts of the products of correctional institutions of the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia was conducted, according to which meals were organized for more than 39,000 convicts, including 2,000 convicts suffering from anemia. Results and discussion. The analysis revealed that the energy value of the diet for men convicted ranged from 3900 to 4200 kcal/day, and for women - from 3400 to 3900 kcal/day, which corresponded to the physiological needs for energy and nutrients. At the same time, at the legislative level, special elevated nutritional standards have been identified for convicted anemia patients who are in-patient treatment in institutions of the Federal Penitentiary Service, regardless of the place of detention. In the course of a comparative analysis of the diets of medical nutrition used for sick inmates and persons in medical organizations of Russia, differences were revealed not only in the number of items of food, but also in the daily consumption rate. The energy value of the diets of patients with anemia is 3200 kcal/day for persons in medical institutions, and 3180 kcal/day for prisoners held in prisons. As recommendations, it should be noted that it is advisable for convicts to be given 150 ml of natural milk for an afternoon snack or lunch, separately from the fish served for dinner, as well as the expediency of using low-fat dairy products in diets. Conclusion. Despite the differences in the nutritional standards of patients with anemia among convicts and patients at large, the overall balance of protein, carbohydrate, fat and mineral is almost identical, balanced and rational.

Association of parental investment of time and cost in food provisioning with adherence to dietary guidelines for the consumption of fruits, vegetables and non-core foods in pre-schoolers.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether parent-reported time and cost for provision of food is associated with consumption of fruits, vegetables and non-core foods in pre-schoolers. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of baseline data from the Healthy Habits randomised controlled trial. Two subscales of the Children's Dietary Questionnaire (CDQ) were used to assess fruit and vegetable, and non-core food consumption. SETTING: Thirty pre-schools in the Hunter Region of New South Wales, Australia. SUBJECTS: Parents (n 396) with a child aged 3-5 years attending a participating pre-school were recruited. Parents needed to reside with that child for at least four days per week and have primary responsibility for providing meals and snacks to their child. RESULTS: Sixty-three per cent of children had a parent-reported subscale score indicating adherence to dietary guidelines for fruit and vegetable intake, while 64% of children had a subscale score indicating they were exceeding dietary guidelines for non-core foods. Regression models revealed significant positive associations between higher CDQ scores for non-core foods (indicating higher consumption levels) and minutes that parents spent preparing food (P=0·032 and 0·025) and amount spent on purchasing food (P=0·043 and 0·020). The magnitude of the effects was small (estimate=0·003 and 0·001). CONCLUSIONS: Time and cost spent by parents on provision of food was not significantly associated with child fruit and vegetable consumption. Further explorations into time spent on food preparation and cost of food procurement are warranted to help address the increased consumption of non-core foods by pre-school children.

Incorporating climate change into ecosystem service assessments and decisions: a review.

Climate change is having a significant impact on ecosystem services and is likely to become increasingly important as this phenomenon intensifies. Future impacts can be difficult to assess as they often involve long timescales, dynamic systems with high uncertainties, and are typically confounded by other drivers of change. Despite a growing literature on climate change impacts on ecosystem services, no quantitative syntheses exist. Hence, we lack an overarching understanding of the impacts of climate change, how they are being assessed, and the extent to which other drivers, uncertainties, and decision making are incorporated. To address this, we systematically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature that assesses climate change impacts on ecosystem services at subglobal scales. We found that the impact of climate change on most types of services was predominantly negative (59% negative, 24% mixed, 4% neutral, 13% positive), but varied across services, drivers, and assessment methods. Although uncertainty was usually incorporated, there were substantial gaps in the sources of uncertainty included, along with the methods used to incorporate them. We found that relatively few studies integrated decision making, and even fewer studies aimed to identify solutions that were robust to uncertainty. For management or policy to ensure the delivery of ecosystem services, integrated approaches that incorporate multiple drivers of change and account for multiple sources of uncertainty are needed. This is undoubtedly a challenging task, but ignoring these complexities can result in misleading assessments of the impacts of climate change, suboptimal management outcomes, and the inefficient allocation of resources for climate adaptation.

Effects of policies or interventions that influence the school food environment on children's health and nonhealth outcomes: a systematic review.

CONTEXT: Globally, 1 in 3 children under 5 years is undernourished or overweight, and 1 in 2 suffers from hidden hunger due to nutrient deficiencies. As children spend a considerable time at school, school-based policies that aim to improve children's dietary intake may help address this double burden of malnutrition. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review aimed to assess the effects of implementing policies or interventions that influence the school food environment on children's health and nonhealth outcomes. DATA SOURCES, EXTRACTION, AND ANALYSIS: Eleven databases were searched up to April 2020 and the World Health Organization (WHO) released a call for data due in June 2020. Records were screened against the eligibility criteria, and data extraction and risk-of-bias assessment were conducted by 1 reviewer and checked by another. The synthesis was based on effect direction, and certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach. CONCLUSIONS: Seventy-four studies reporting 10 different comparisons were included. The body of evidence indicates that interventions addressing the school food environment may have modest beneficial effects on certain key outcomes. Nutrition standards for healthy foods and beverages at schools, interventions that change how food is presented and positioned, and fruit and vegetable provision may have a beneficial effect on the consumption of healthy foods and beverages. Regarding effects on the consumption of discretionary foods and beverages, nutrition standards may have beneficial effects. Nutrition standards for foods and beverages, changes to portion size served, and the implementation of multiple nudging strategies may have beneficial effects on energy intake. Regarding effects of purchasing or selecting healthier foods, changes to how food is presented and positioned may be beneficial. This review was commissioned and supported by the WHO (registration 2020/1001698-0). WHO reviewed and approved the protocol for the systematic review and reviewed the initial report of the completed systematic review. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration no: CRD42020186265.

Evaluation of an Environmental Nutrition Intervention at the 2018 Commonwealth Games.

There has been an increasing expectation that the food provided for athletes at major competition events meets the specific dietary and performance needs of athletes. The aim of this study was to map the range of food service nutrition schemes that were implemented prior to and during a major competition event (2018 Commonwealth Games) and evaluate these schemes through staff training satisfaction, athlete feedback, and quality assurance checks. This study followed a case study design with nutrition schemes as follows: informing (nutrition labelling), enabling (staff training, nutrition service), and engineering (modification to menus and recipes). Overall, participants reported that they easily found items on the menu that met their nutritional/dietary needs. When asked how useful the schemes were in helping them to identify items that meet their needs, the majority of participants found the nutrition cards (n = 227, 71%) and serving staff (n = 212, 66%) 'useful/very useful'. 'Good/very good' ratings were received by >90% of respondents for speed of service, staff politeness, and knowledge of the menu. Participants (n = 316) who rated the nutrition staff as 'useful/very useful' gave a higher median rating for the menu. Past events have focused on the impact of a single component in the food environment; however, taking a whole systems approach resulted in more suitable food provision to meet the dietary needs of athletes.

'It was called a grab bag and nobody wanted to grab them': Teachers' perceptions of school lunches during the COVID-19 pandemic - a regional case study.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic brought changes to primary school lunches leading to concerns over nutritional quality and uptake of lunches by vulnerable children. Regional data from Tayside, Scotland, showed that only 55% of children who were eligible for free school meals took these (normal uptake pre-pandemic was 66%). The current work aimed to identify teachers' perceptions of meal provisioning in primary schools during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Design and methods: A cross-sectional online survey was carried out among primary school teachers across Tayside, Scotland. Using an online survey (21 questions combining multiple choice formats and open text) and interviews, primary school teachers shared their views on food quality, quantity, meal choices and factors influencing uptake of primary school lunches. Interviews were recorded, transcribed and thematically analysed with respect to factors influencing consumption. Results: The survey was completed by 41 teachers and 8 participated in a follow up interview. Around one-third (29%) of primary school teachers believed the quality of lunches had decreased and cited poor appearance of food, use of takeaway containers and food wastage. The lunch format was viewed negatively principally relating to the substitution of hot lunches with cold sandwiches, portion sizes, choice and perceived value for money. Concerns were expressed about acceptability and how far the meals contributed to food security. Conclusions: Further work on food provisioning is needed in order to identify ways to provide a nutritional safety net for vulnerable children.

Ecosystem services provided by the exotic bivalves Dreissena polymorpha, D. rostriformis bugensis, and Limnoperna fortunei.

The ecosystem services approach to conservation is becoming central to environmental policy decision making. While many negative biological invasion-driven impacts on ecosystem structure and functioning have been identified, much less was done to evaluate their ecosystem services. In this paper, we focus on the often-overlooked ecosystem services provided by three notable exotic ecosystem engineering bivalves, the zebra mussel, the quagga mussel, and the golden mussel. One of the most significant benefits of invasive bivalves is water filtration, which results in water purification and changes rates of nutrient cycling, thus mitigating the effects of eutrophication. Mussels are widely used as sentinel organisms for the assessment and biomonitoring of contaminants and pathogens and are consumed by many fishes and birds. Benefits of invasive bivalves are particularly relevant in human-modified ecosystems. We summarize the multiple ecosystem services provided by invasive bivalves and recommend including the economically quantifiable services in the assessments of their economic impacts. We also highlight important ecosystem disservices by exotic bivalves, identify data limitations, and future research directions. This assessment should not be interpreted as a rejection of the fact that invasive mussels have negative impacts, but as an attempt to provide additional information for scientists, managers, and policymakers.

The Nutritional Quality of Food Provision at UK Government-Funded Holiday Clubs: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Energy and Nutrient Content.

A large proportion of children are at risk of food insecurity during school holidays in the UK. The government-funded Holiday Activities and Food (HAF) programme provides free holiday clubs offering at least one healthy meal/day to eligible children and adolescents. This study aims at evaluating the nutritional quality of food provision at HAF holiday clubs, particularly hot/cold and vegetarian/non-vegetarian meals. Menu variants (n = 2759) from 49 HAF holiday clubs were assessed for adherence to School Food Standards (SFS) and their notional compositional quality, which was scored utilising a novel nutrient-based meal quality index. The median adherence to SFS across all available menus was 70% (IQR 59-79%). Overall, hot variants scored statistically higher menu quality scores than cold variants for both 5-11y (92.3 (80.7-102.7) vs. 80.4 (69.3-90.6)) and 11-18y (73.5 (62.5-85.8) vs. 58.9 (50.0-70.7)) criteria. Cold and hot menu variants tended to score differentially for quality sub-components. These findings highlight areas for potential future improvement in HAF holiday club provision with a tendency for food provision to appear less ideal for attendees for those aged 11-18. Ensuring that children from low-income households have access to a healthy diet is crucial to reduce UK health inequalities.

Food Provision at the Olympic Games in the New Millennium: A Meta-narrative Review.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The objective of this meta-narrative review was to identify, organise and map the literature on food provision and nutrition support at the summer and winter Olympic and Paralympic Games (OPG)  and similar major competition events over the past 21 years. This builds on a comprehensive update of a previous historical review of the evolution of food provision at the summer Olympic Games up until 2000 and considers contemporary issues such as the global pandemic and sustainability goals. METHODS: A range of sources included primary research and review articles, edited book chapters, theses, conference papers or abstracts, International Olympic Committee reports, Organising Committees' food vision and post-Games reports, independent professional reports, and media and periodicals including magazines and trade journals. The search strategy included four steps: a database search that complied with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews criteria, a search of the Olympic Studies Centre, a review of reference lists for unpublished sources, and a Google search for additional media reports. The researchers followed an iterative process where emerging narratives were discussed, recorded and refined as data were extracted. RESULTS: The data from 229 records were extracted into a spreadsheet and grouped according to the type of evidence and specific event, then presented chronologically to give a perspective on the development of food provision and nutrition support. Eleven narratives emerged from the data extraction: 'description of meals, menus and food', 'vision of the food provision', 'food safety', 'catering company involvement', 'sponsorship or contracts with food companies', 'athlete perspective', 'stakeholder perspective', 'athlete food intake,' 'nutrition input in food provision', 'food environment' and 'sustainability'. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that athletes' dining expectations, organising committee budgets, expert input and current global trends have led to food delivery changes. The OPG food environment has the capacity to positively influence the dietary choices of athletes and teams, while evolving to meet contemporary global challenges such as COVID-19 and sustainability targets.

Sports Nutrition in Japan: from the Past to the Future.

The Tokyo 2020 Olympics and Paralympics finished on 5 November 2021. A total of 870,000 meals were provided in the main dining facility during the events. Sports nutrition research in Japan began before the previous Tokyo Olympics, which was held in 1964. A book about sports nutrition in Japan had already been published, in 1949. A number of previous studies have examined nutrition among Olympic athletes, and influential research on sports nutrition in Japan includes a series of studies on sports anemia. This series covered basic research into the mechanisms of sports anemia through to the prevention of sports anemia. However, anemia among athletes remains an important issue. In Japan, an accreditation system for sports dietitians was established in 2007, and a scientific association for sports nutrition was established in 2004. However, the connection between basic research and practice remains a substantial problem.

Identification and Evaluation of Tools Utilised for Measuring Food Provision in Childcare Centres and Primary Schools: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Children aged 2-11 years spend significant hours per week in early childhood education and care (ECEC) and primary schools. Whilst considered important environments to influence children's food intake, there is heterogeneity in the tools utilised to assess food provision in these settings. This systematic review aimed to identify and evaluate tools used to measure food provision in ECEC and primary schools. METHODS: The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) was followed. Publications (2003-2020) that implemented, validated, or developed measurement tools to assess food provision within ECEC or primary schools were included. Two reviewers extracted and evaluated studies, cross checked by a third reviewer and verified by all authors. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Quality Criteria Checklist (QCC) was used to critically appraise each study. RESULTS: Eighty-two studies were included in the review. Seven measurement tools were identified, namely, Menu review; Observation; Weighed food protocol; Questionnaire/survey; Digital photography; Quick menu audit; and Web-based menu assessment. An evidence-based evaluation was conducted for each tool. CONCLUSIONS: The weighed food protocol was found to be the most popular and accurate measurement tool to assess individual-level intake. Future research is recommended to develop and validate a tool to assess service-level food provision.