Blood over-testing: impact, ethical issues and mitigating actions.

Plenty of studies demonstrate that hospital-acquired anemia (HAA) can increase transfusion rates, mortality, morbidity and cause unnecessary patient burden, including additional length of hospital stay, sleep disruption and venipuncture harms resulting from blood samples unlikely to change clinical management. Beyond patient costs, community costs should also be considered, such as laboratory time and resources waste, environmental impact, increasing pressure on labs and fewer tests available on time for patients who can benefit from them most. Blood over-testing does not support the principles of non-maleficence, justice and respect for patient autonomy, at the expense dubious beneficence. Reducing the number and frequency of orders is possible, to a certain extent, by adopting nudge strategies and raising awareness among prescribing doctors. However, reducing the orders may appear unsafe to doctors and patients. Therefore, reducing blood volume from each order is a better alternative, which is worth implementing through technological, purchasing and organizational arrangements, possibly combined according to need (smaller tubes, adequate analytic platforms, blind dilution, blood conservative devices, aggregating tests and laboratory units).

Hospital-acquired anemia among patients in a university hospital and the affiliated general practices in the capital region of Denmark, 2019.

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 25% of the patients with hospital acquired anemia (HAA) develop moderate to severe HAA during hospitalization. This is related to an increased risk of prolonged stay, readmission and mortality. The primary aim was during one year to characterize a population with very frequent phlebotomies based on a university hospital in the Capital Region of Denmark and the related general practitioners. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using administrative data on phlebotomies from 1 January 2019 to 31 December 2019 analyzed at a university hospital. RESULTS: A total of 203,811 patients had 10,083,207 requisitions and 1,373,013 tubes. One percent, 1985 patients, had an extreme of frequent phlebotomies >60 tubes and formed the basis for the study population. The study population was significantly older as compared to the excluded patients (<60 tubes) (mean 65.7 vs. 51.6 years, p < .001).The likelihood of hemoglobin decrease per 100 mL blood drawn were calculated at four levels of decreases: Hemoglobin decrease of 2 mmol/L (adjusted OR; 95%; 2.03, CI 1.79-2.31), hemoglobin decrease of 3 mmol/L (adjusted OR; 95%, 1.36, CI 1.28-1.45), hemoglobin decrease of 4 mmol/L, (adjusted OR; 95%, 1.27, CI 1.19-1.35) and hemoglobin decrease of 5 mmol/L, (adjusted OR; 95% 1.22, CI 1.13-1.31). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate to severe HAA occurred in a limited group with excessive many phlebotomies. It was a worrisome trend that the frailest patients had the highest risk of developing HAA.

Impact of total automation consolidating first-line laboratory tests on diagnostic blood loss.

Background Blood loss for laboratory testing may contribute to hospital-acquired anemia. When implementing the core laboratory (core-lab) section, we consolidated first-line tests decreasing the number of tubes previously dispatched to different sites. Here, hypothesized benefits of the amount of blood volume drawn were explored. Methods We retrieved, using a laboratory information system (LIS), the number of tubes received by laboratories interested in the change from all clinical wards in a year-based period, i.e. 2013 for pre-core-lab and 2015 for core-lab system, respectively. Data were expressed as the overall number of tubes sent to laboratories, the corresponding blood volume, and the number of laboratory tests performed, normalized for the number of inpatients. Results After consolidation, the average number of blood tubes per inpatient significantly decreased (12.6 vs. 10.7, p < 0.001). However, intensive care units (ICUs) did not reduce the number of tubes per patient, according to the needs of daily monitoring of their clinical status. The average blood volume sent to laboratories did not vary significantly because serum tubes for core-lab required higher volumes for testing up to 55 analytes in the same transaction. Finally, the number of requested tests per patient during the new osystem slightly decreased (-2.6%). Conclusions Total laboratory automation does not automatically mean reducing iatrogenic blood loss. The new system affected the procedure of blood drawing in clinical wards by significantly reducing the number of handled tubes, producing a benefit in terms of costs, labor and time consumption. Except in ICUs, this also slightly promoted some blood saving. ICUs which engage in phlebotomizing patients daily, did not take advantage from the test consolidation.

Hospital-Acquired Anemia in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome: Epidemiology and Potential Impact on Long-Term Outcome.

BACKGROUND: Anemia (either pre-existing or hospital-acquired) is considered an independent predictor of mortality in acute coronary syndromes. However, it is still not clear whether anemia should be considered as a marker of worse health status or a therapeutic target. We sought to investigate the relationship between hospital-acquired anemia and clinical and laboratory findings and to assess the association with mortality and major cardiovascular events at long-term follow-up. METHODS: Patients consecutively admitted at Niguarda Hospital between February 2014 and November 2020 for an acute coronary syndrome were included in this cohort analysis and classified as anemic at admission (group A), with normal hemoglobin at admission but developing anemia during hospitalization (hospital-acquired anemia) (group B); and with normal hemoglobin levels throughout admission (group C). RESULTS: Among 1294 patients included, group A included 353 (27%) patients, group B 468 (36%), and group C 473 patients (37%). In terms of cardiovascular burden and incidence of death, major cardiovascular events and bleeding at 4.9-year median follow-up, group B had an intermediate risk profile as compared with A and C. Baseline anemia was an independent predictor of death (hazard ratio 1.51; 95% confidence interval, 1.02-2.25; P = .04) along with frailty, Charlson comorbidity Index, estimated glomerular filtration rate, previous myocardial infarction, and left ventricular ejection fraction. Conversely, hospital-acquired anemia was not associated with increased mortality (hazard ratio 1.18; 95% confidence interval, 0.8-1.75; P = .4). CONCLUSIONS: Hospital-acquired anemia affects one-third of patients hospitalized for acute coronary syndrome and is associated with age, frailty, and comorbidity burden, but was not found to be an independent predictor of long-term mortality.

Prevalence and risk factors for hospital-acquired anemia in internal medicine patients: learning from the "less is more" perspective.

Hospital-acquired anemia is defined as a new-onset anemia in hospitalized patients who have a normal hemoglobin level at admission. Its prevalence is unknown and most studies published on this topic have been conducted in intensive care unit patients with limited applicability to less acute settings, such as internal medicine wards. We conducted a retrospective study and enrolled 129 patients who were admitted to an Internal Medicine Unit between October 2021 and February 2022. The median value of phlebotomy during hospitalization was 46 ml (IQR 30-72 ml), whereas the median length of hospital stay was 9 days (IQR 5-13 days). The median value of hemoglobin reduction was -0.63 g/dl (p < 0.001) and the maximum value of drop in hemoglobin value was -2.6 g/dl. All patients who experienced a phlebotomy > 85 ml had a hemoglobin reduction > 0.6 g/dl. 20.9% of patients developed anemia during the hospital stay (7% moderate and 13.9% mild). No cases of severe anemia were observed. The volume of blood drawn during the hospital stay and the Hb value on admission were the only two variables statistically associated with the development of anemia, whereas gender, age, and chronic diseases, such as diabetes, history of cancer, or heart failure, were not. Strategies, such as elimination of unnecessary laboratory tests and the use of smaller tubes for blood collection, are needed to reduce the volume of iatrogenic blood loss and avoid blood wastage occurring during hospitalization in internal medicine patients.

Tackling the unknowns in understanding and management of hospital acquired anemia.

Hospital acquired anemia (HAA) has been a recognized entity for nearly 50 years. Despite multiple hypotheses, a mechanistic understanding is lacking, and targeted interventions have not yet yielded significantly impactful results. Known risk factors include advanced age, multiple co-morbidities, low bone marrow reserve, admission to the intensive care unit, and frequent phlebotomy. However, confounding variables in many studies continues to complicate the identification of additional risk factors. Improved understanding of iron metabolism, erythropoiesis, and the erythroid iron restriction response in the last few decades, as well as the recent demonstration of poor outcomes correlating with increased transfusion have refocused attention on HAA. While retrospective database studies provide ample correlative data between 1) HAA and poor outcomes; 2) reduction of phlebotomy volume and decrease in transfusion requirement; and 3) over-transfusion and increased mortality, no causal link between reduced phlebotomy volume, decreased rates of HAA, and improved mortality or other relevant outcomes have been definitely established. Here, we review the current state of knowledge and provide a summary of potential directions to understand and mitigate HAA. There are at present no clear guidelines on whether and when to evaluate hospitalized patients for underlying causes of anemia. We thus provide a guide for clinicians in general practice toward identifying patients at the highest risk for HAA, decreasing blood loss through phlebotomy to the greatest degree feasible, and evaluating and treating reversible causes of anemia in a targeted population.

Reducing Blood Loss by Changing to Small Volume Tubes for Laboratory Testing.

OBJECTIVE: To reduce diagnostic blood loss by using small volume tubes for routine laboratory testing throughout the hospital, as blood loss from laboratory testing can be substantial for patients and may lead to hospital-acquired anemia. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Diagnostic blood loss was evaluated in hospitalized patients between April 1, 2017, and June 1, 2018. The preintervention, during intervention, and postintervention mean diagnostic blood loss per hospitalized patient was compared across the floors and for each type of tube for hematology, basic metabolic panel, and coagulation tests. Mean hemoglobin levels, blood transfusions per hospitalized patient, and percent redraws were also compared. RESULTS: The total volume of blood drawn for all the 3 tests decreased across each implementation phase; however, only patients admitted to the transplant and critical care (T/CC) units had increased hemoglobin levels. In addition, there was a significant reduction in transfusions across implementation phases. The incidence risk ratio for transfusion reduced even more in patients admitted to the T/CC units. Finally, there was no significant difference in the overall percent redraws across all the units. CONCLUSION: The use of small volume tubes in exchange for standard sized tubes markedly decreased diagnostic blood loss by 25.7% in all the units and 22.9% in the T/CC units. Also, the number of transfusions decreased across units, with the greatest decrease in the T/CC units. An increase in mean hemoglobin levels was observed specifically in patients admitted to the T/CC units, with no corresponding change in percent redraws across all the units.

Reticulocyte and Erythrocyte Hemoglobin Parameters for Iron Deficiency and Anemia Diagnostics in Patient Blood Management. A Narrative Review.

Anemia, iron deficiency and other hematinic deficiencies are a major cause of perioperative transfusion needs and are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Anemia can be caused either by decreased production of hemoglobin or red blood cells or by increased consumption and blood loss. Decreased production can involve anything from erythropoietin or vitamin B12 insufficiency to absolute or functional lack of iron. Thus, to achieve the goal of patient blood management, anemia must be addressed by addressing its causes. The traditional parameters to diagnose anemia, despite offering elaborate options, are not ideally suited to giving a simple overview of the causes of anemia, e.g., iron status for erythropoiesis, especially during the acute phase of inflammation, acute blood loss or iron deficiency. Reticulocyte hemoglobin can thus help to uncover the cause of the anemia and to identify the main factors inhibiting erythropoiesis. Regardless of the cause of anemia, reticulocyte hemoglobin can also quickly track the success of therapy and, together with the regular full blood count it is measured alongside, help in clearing the patient for surgery.

A Narrative Review on Hospital-Acquired Anemia: Keeping Blood where It Belongs.

Hospital-acquired anemia (HAA) is a prevalent condition that is independently associated with worse clinical outcomes including prolongation of hospital stay and increased morbidity and mortality. While multifactorial in general, iatrogenic blood loss has been long recognized as one of the key contributing factors to development and worsening of HAA during hospital stay. Patients can be losing over 50 mL of blood per day to diagnostic blood draws. Strategies such as elimination of unnecessary laboratory tests that are not likely to alter the course of management, use of pediatric-size or small-volume tubes for blood collection to reduce phlebotomy volumes and avoid blood wastage, use of closed blood sampling devices, and substituting invasive tests with point-of-care testing alone or bundled together have generally been shown to be effective in reducing the volume of iatrogenic blood loss, hemoglobin decline, and blood transfusions, with no negative impact on the availability of test results for the clinical team. These strategies are important components of Patient Blood Management programs and their adoption can lead to improved clinical outcomes for patients.

Diagnostic blood loss from phlebotomy and hospital acquired anemia in patients with severe burns.

PURPOSE: The study was performed to estimate the diagnostic blood loss (DBL) volume during hospitalization and investigate its relationship with the development of moderate to severe hospital acquired anemia (HAA) and increased number of red blood cell (RBC) transfusion following extensive burns. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective study of adult burned patients with total body surface area (TBSA) burn larger than 40%, who were admitted to burn center of Changhai hospital between January 2005 and December 2017. RESULTS: We included a final number of 157 patients in the present study. Moderate to severe HAA within the fourth week postburn was developed in 46 of 121 patients who stayed over 28-day hospitalization. Patients with moderate to severe HAA had both significantly higher total DBL volume [245 (IQR: 183.75, 325.25) mL vs 168 (119, 163) mL ; P = 0.001] and DBL volume per day [10.22 (IQR: 8.57, 12.38) mL vs 6.63 (5.22, 10.42) mL/day; P = 0.005]. Logistic regression analysis revealed that both DBL volume per day and TBSA burn were independent risk factors for the development of moderate to severe HAA. CONCLUSIONS: Severely burned patients appear to be prone to develop HAA during hospitalization. The DBL volume contribute to the occurrence of moderate to severe HAA, which might be a modifiable target for preventing HAA.

Impact of an educational intervention on the frequency of daily blood test orders for hospitalized patients.

OBJECTIVES: During hospitalizations, blood is drawn for diagnostic laboratory tests to help guide patient care. Often, blood tests continue to be ordered even in the face of clinical and laboratory stability. Blood draws are painful and costly, and they may be associated with anemia. We hypothesized that provider education could reduce the frequency of daily blood tests ordered for hospitalized patients. METHODS: During a 2-month intervention period, internal medicine providers were educated through flyers displayed in providers' offices and periodic email communications reminding them to order daily blood tests only if the results would change patient care. Two-month preintervention data from 982 patients and 2-month postintervention data from 988 patients were analyzed. The primary outcome measured was the number of daily blood tests ordered per patient per day. RESULTS: Mean orders of CBC decreased from 1.46 to 1.37 tests per patient per day (P < .05) after the intervention. Basic metabolic panel orders were reduced from 0.91 to 0.83 tests per patient per day (P < .05). Cost analyses showed a reduction of $6.33 per patient day based on the decrease in the number of daily laboratory tests ordered. CONCLUSIONS: Provider education and reminders can reduce the frequency of daily blood tests ordered by providers for hospitalized patients. This can decrease health care costs and may reduce the risk of complications such as anemia.

Anemia intrahospitalaria y descenso de hemoglobina en pacientes internados / Hospital-acquired anemia and decrease of hemoglobin levels in hospitalized patients

Es frecuente observar el desarrollo de anemia durante la internación, especialmente en pacientes graves. Esto se ha relacionado a extracciones de laboratorio. Pocos estudios evaluaron su prevalencia y factores asociados en pacientes internados en sala general. El objetivo fue determinar la prevalencia, características y factores clínicos asociados a anemia intrahospitalaria y descenso de hemoglobina en pacientes internados. Se efectuó un estudio transversal, prospectivo, descriptivo. Se analizaron 192 internaciones consecutivas en sala general. Se determinó aquellas que presentaron un descenso del valor de hemoglobina = 2 g/dl y se analizaron factores de riesgo asociados. Presentaron anemia 139 pacientes (72.4%), 89 (46.4%) al ingreso y 50 (26%) durante la internación. Se presentaron 47 casos de descenso de hemoglobina = 2 g/dl (24.47%), en los que se observaron los valores más bajos de hematocrito y hemoglobina al alta (p = 0.01), hidratación parenteral con mayor volumen (p = 0.01) y estadías hospitalarias más prolongadas (p = 0.0001). En el análisis univariado las variables leucocitosis = 11 000mm³ (OR; IC95%: 2.02; 1.03-4; p = 0.01), días de internación = 7 (OR; IC95%: 3.39; 1.62-7.09; p = 0.0006), hidratación parenteral = 1500 ml/día (OR; IC95%: 2.47; 1.06-6.4; p = 0.01), vía central (OR; IC95%: 10.29; 1.75-108.07, p = 0.003) y anemia intrahospitalaria (OR; IC95%: 7.06; 3.41-15.83; p = 0.00000004) fueron estadísticamente significativos como factores de riesgo para descenso de hemoglobina = 2 g/dl. En el análisis multivariado las variables leucocitosis = 11 000 mm³ (OR; IC95%:2.45; 1.14-5.27; p = 0.02); días de internación = 7 (OR; IC95%: 5.15; 2.19-12.07; p = 0.0002); hidratación parenteral = 1500 ml/día (OR; IC95%: 2.95; 1.13-7.72; p = 0.02) y vía central (OR; IC95%:8.82; 1.37-56.82; p = 0.02) fueron factores predictivos independientes de descenso de hemoglobina = 2 g/dl. La anemia intrahospitalaria tuvo una elevada prevalencia. La estadía hospitalaria prolongada, la presencia de leucocitosis, la hidratación parenteral y colocación de acceso venoso central fueron factores predictivos de descenso de hemoglobina = 2 g/dl.

It is common to observe the development of anemia in hospitalized patients, especially in critical cases. Few studies have evaluated its prevalence and associated factors in patients in the general ward. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence, characteristics and associated clinical factors of hospital-acquired anemia and the drop of hemoglobin concentration in hospitalized patients. This is a cross-sectional, prospective and descriptive study. A total of 192 consecutive in-patients in the general ward were studied. Associated risk factors to the drop in hemoglobin by = 2g/dl were analyzed; 139 patients (72.4%) presented anemia; 89 of them (46.4%) had it at admission and 50 (26%) developed hospital-acquired anemia, 47 out of 192 showed a drop in hemoglobin = 2 g/dl(24.48%). They also presented lower values of hematocrite and hemoglobin at discharge (p = 0.01), parenteral hydration at a higher volume (p = 0.01), and lengthier hospitalizations (p = 0.0001). In the univariate analysis, the following variables were statistically significant risk factors: leukocytosis = 11 000 mm³ (OR; IC95%: 2,02; 1.03-4; p = 0.01), hospitalization days = 7 (OR; IC95%:3.39; 1.62-7.09; p = 0.0006), parenteral hydration = 1500 ml/day (OR; IC95%: 2.47; 1.06-6.4; p = 0.01), central venous access (OR; IC95%:10.29; 1.75-108.07; p = 0.003) and hospital-acquired anemia (OR; IC95%: 7.06; 3.41-15.83; p = 0.00000004). In the multivariate analysis, the following variables were independent predictive factors of the hemoglobin decrease = 2 g/dl: leukocytosis = 11 000 mm³ (OR; IC95%: 2.45; 1.14-5,27; p = 0.02), hospitalization days = 7 (OR; IC95%:5.15; 2.19-12.07; p = 0.0002), parenteral hydration = 1500 ml/day (OR; IC95%: 2.95; 1.13-7.72; p = 0.02), central venous access (OR; IC95%:8.82; 1.37-56.82; p = 0.02). Hospital-acquired anemia has a high prevalence. Lengthier stays, presence of leukocytosis, parenteral hydration and central venous access placement are predictive factors of the drop in hemoglobin = 2 g/dl.