Is all prejudice created equal? The role of modern and aversive racism in mock juror decisions.

The current study examined whether aversive and modern racists would convict Black defendants differently based on theoretical differences: aversive racists are egalitarian and discriminate when not reminded of their values, whereas modern racists do not espouse egalitarian values and discriminate when a non-racial reason exists to justify their behavior. Participants read a criminal trial where defendant race (Black vs. White), race salience (present vs. absent), and justification (weak vs. strong evidence) were manipulated. Results showed that aversive and modern racists convicted the Black defendant at similar rates, but aversive racists were more likely to convict the White than the Black defendant. Aversive racists were also more egalitarian and less socially conservative. The finding that aversive racists convict Black and White defendants differently, but modern racists did not, suggests the importance of distinguishing aversive and modern racists to obtain a more complete picture of racial discrimination in juror decision making.

The Relationship Between Racial Prejudice and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality Risk at the State and County Level.

BACKGROUND: Robust evidence shows that perceived discrimination among stigmatized groups is associated with negative health outcomes. However, little work has examined whether holding prejudiced attitudes toward others is associated with health risks for prejudiced individuals. PURPOSE: The study is a test of the hypothesis that holding prejudicial attitudes has negative health implications for both the holders and targets of prejudicial attitudes. METHODS: The project connected data (2003-2015) at the state and county levels on average explicit and implicit prejudice held by White, Black, and Native American respondents from Project Implicit with data on cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality for White, Black, and Native American individuals from the CDC Wonder database. Separate analyses regressed implicit and explicit prejudice on CVD mortality risk for White, Black, and Native American individuals, respectively. RESULTS: At the state level, among White individuals, explicit prejudice toward Blacks (ß = .431, p =.037) and implicit prejudice toward Native Americans (ß = .283, p = .045) were positively associated with greater CVD mortality for Whites. At the county level, White individuals' implicit prejudice toward Blacks (ß =.081, p = .015) and Black individuals' implicit prejudice toward Whites (ß = -.066, p = .018) were associated with greater CVD mortality for Whites. Also, at the county-level, among Black individuals, higher implicit (ß = -.133, p < .001) and explicit (ß = -.176, p < .001) prejudice toward Whites predicted CVD mortality for Blacks. Moreover, explicit prejudice held by White individuals was positively associated with Blacks' county-level CVD deaths (ß = .074, p = .036). CONCLUSIONS: This evidence suggests that across racial groups, holding racial prejudice is associated with CVD mortality risk for both the prejudiced and the stigmatized groups. Future research should verify the reliability of this potential public health effect with additional work explicating moderators and mediators to inform surveillance and interventions.

Applied Racial/Ethnic Healthcare Disparities Research Using Implicit Measures.

Many healthcare disparities studies use the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to assess bias. Despite ongoing controversy around the IAT, its use has enabled researchers to reliably document an association between provider implicit prejudice and provider-to-patient communication (provider communication behaviors and patient reactions to them). Success in documenting such associations is likely due to the outcomes studied, study settings, and data structure unique to racial/ethnic healthcare disparities research. In contrast, there has been little evidence supporting the role of providers' implicit bias in treatment recommendations. Researchers are encouraged to use multiple implicit measures to further investigate how, why, and under what circumstances providers' implicit bias predicts provider-to-patient communication and treatment recommendations. Such efforts will contribute to the advancement of both basic social psychology/social cognition research and applied health disparities research: a better understanding of implicit social cognition and a more comprehensive identification of the sources of widespread racial/ethnic healthcare disparities, respectively.

Framing (implicitly) matters: the role of religion in attitudes toward immigrants and Muslims in Denmark.

Denmark is currently experiencing the highest immigration rate in its modern history. Population surveys indicate that negative public attitudes toward immigrants actually stem from attitudes toward their (perceived) Islamic affiliation. We used a framing paradigm to investigate the explicit and implicit attitudes of Christian and Atheist Danes toward targets framed as Muslims or as immigrants. The results showed that explicit and implicit attitudes were more negative when the target was framed as a Muslim, rather than as an immigrant. Interestingly, implicit attitudes were qualified by the participants' religion. Specifically, analyses revealed that Christians demonstrated more negative implicit attitudes toward immigrants than Muslims. Conversely, Atheists demonstrated more negative implicit attitudes toward Muslims than Atheists. These results suggest a complex relationship between religion, and implicit and explicit prejudice. Both the religious affiliation of the perceiver and the perceived religious affiliation of the target are key factors in social perception.

Implicit and explicit racial prejudice among medical professionals: updated estimates from a population-based study.

Background: Prior research provides evidence of implicit and explicit anti-Black prejudice among US physicians. However, we know little about whether racialized prejudice varies among physicians and non-physician healthcare workers relative to the general population. Methods: Using ordinary least squares models and data from Harvard's Project Implicit (2007-2019), we assessed the associations between self-reported occupational status (physician, non-physician healthcare worker) and implicit (N = 1,500,268) and explicit prejudice (N = 1,429,677) toward Black, Arab-Muslim, Asian, and Native American populations, net of demographic characteristics. We used STATA 17 for all statistical analyses. Findings: Physicians and non-physician healthcare workers exhibited more implicit and explicit anti-Black and anti-Arab-Muslim prejudice than the general population. After controlling for demographics, these differences became non-significant for physicians but remained for non-physician healthcare workers (ß = 0.027 and 0.030, p < 0.01). Demographic controls largely explained anti-Asian prejudice among both groups, and physicians and non-physician healthcare workers exhibited comparatively lower (ß = -0.124, p < 0.01) and similar levels of anti-Native implicit prejudice, respectively. Finally, white non-physician healthcare workers exhibited the highest levels of anti-Black prejudice. Interpretation: Demographic characteristics explained racialized prejudice among physicians, but not fully among non-physician healthcare workers. More research is needed to understand the causes and consequences of elevated levels of prejudice among non-physician healthcare workers. By acknowledging implicit and explicit prejudice as important reflections of systemic racism, this study highlights the need to understand the role of healthcare providers and systems in generating health disparities. Funding: UW-Madison Centennial Scholars Program, Society of Family Planning Research Fund, UW Center for Demography and Ecology, the County Health Rankings and Roadmaps Program and the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Understanding racial bias through electroencephalography.

Research on racial bias in social and cognitive psychology has focused on automatic cognitive processes such as categorisation or stereotyping. Neuroimaging has revealed differences in the neural circuit when processing social information about one's own or another's ethnicity. This review investigates the influence of racial bias on human behaviour by reviewing studies that examined changes in neural circuitry (i.e. ERP responses) during automatic and controlled processes elicited by specific tasks. This systematic analysis of specific ERP components across different studies provides a greater understanding of how social contexts are perceived and become associated with specific stereotypes and behavioural predictions. Therefore, investigating these related cognitive and neurobiological functions can further our understanding of how racial bias affects our cognition more generally and guide more effective programs and policies aimed at its mitigation.

Enhanced N170 to outgroup faces: Perceptual novelty or prejudice?

Habituation to ethnic ingroup members has been reported to be greater than to ethnic outgroup members. This pattern could be due to the lack of perceptive experience (familiarity) with outgroup facial morphs or, alternatively, to the prejudice held toward that outgroup. We explored this disjunctive in 71 participants, all Spanish, who were experimentally habituated to faces from their Ingroup and to faces from two unfamiliar outgroups, one for which there is low probability of prejudice in this population (Non-prejudiced Outgroup), and one for which the probability of prejudice is higher (Prejudiced Outgroup). We indexed habituation through event-related potentials, concretely as the differential amplitude of the face-sensitive N170 component from Initial to Final trials of each group. Afterward, participants completed several prejudice measures. N170 showed significant habituation to all faces, though it did not differ among groups. However, a regression analysis revealed that individual habituation to the Outgroup faces was inversely related to implicit prejudice scores. Importantly, N170 amplitudes were maximal for the Prejudiced Outgroup in both Initial and Final trials. We conclude that these effects are explained by the prejudice held toward a specific outgroup rather than perceptive experience.

The relationship between disability prejudice and disability employment rates.

BACKGROUND: Despite the ability to and interest in work, people with disabilities are employed at significantly lower rates than nondisabled people. Employment disparities highlight persistent social and cultural stereotypes that equate disability with unemployability. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between employment of people with disabilities and disability prejudice in the United States. This study had the following research question: how does disability prejudice impact state disability employment rates? METHODS: To explore these questions, we used secondary data about state disability employment (2016), as well as disability prejudice data from 270,000 nondisabled people residing in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. RESULTS: Findings from this study revealed states with higher disability prejudice scores have lower disability employment rates, suggesting employment disparities are intertwined with disability prejudice. CONCLUSIONS: Cultures and systems must be rid of harmful disability stereotypes to ensure people with disabilities can truly partake in their human and civil rights.

Prejudice drives exogenous attention to outgroups.

Exogenous attention allows the automatic detection of relevant stimuli and the reorientation of our current focus of attention towards them. Faces from an ethnic outgroup tend to capture exogenous attention to a greater extent than faces from an ethnic ingroup. We explored whether prejudice toward the outgroup, rather than lack of familiarity, is driving this effect. Participants (N = 76) performed a digit categorization task while distractor faces were presented. Faces belonged to (i) a prejudiced outgroup, (ii) a non-prejudiced outgroup and (iii) their ingroup. Half of the faces were previously habituated in order to increase their familiarity. Reaction times, accuracy and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded to index exogenous attention to distractor faces. Additionally, different indexes of explicit and implicit prejudice were measured, the latter being significantly greater towards prejudiced outgroup. N170 amplitude was greater to prejudiced outgroup-regardless of their habituation status-than to both non-prejudiced outgroup and ingroup faces and was associated with implicit prejudice measures. No effects were observed at the behavioral level. Our results show that implicit prejudice, rather than familiarity, is under the observed attention-related N170 effects and that this ERP component may be more sensitive to prejudice than behavioral measures under certain circumstances.

Implicit Bias Predicts Liking of Ingroup Members Who Are Comfortable With Intergroup Interaction.

We test a novel framework for how ingroup members are perceived during intergroup interaction. Across three experiments, we found that, above and beyond egalitarian attitudes and motivations, White observers' automatic responses to Blacks (i.e., their implicit anti-Black bias) shaped their affiliation toward ingroup targets who appeared comfortable engaging in interracial versus same-race interaction. White observers' implicit anti-Black bias negatively correlated with liking of White targets who were comfortable with Blacks (Experiments 1-3). The relationship between implicit bias and liking varied as a function of targets' nonverbal comfort in interracial interactions (Experiment 1). Specifically, implicit bias negatively correlated with liking of targets when targets' nonverbal behaviors revealed observers felt comfortable with interracial contact, irrespective of the nature of those behaviors (Experiment 2). Finally, the relationship between implicit bias and target liking was mediated by perceived similarity (Experiment 3). Theoretical implications for stigma-by-association, social network homogeneity, and extended contact are discussed.

Interventions designed to reduce implicit prejudices and implicit stereotypes in real world contexts: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Implicit biases are present in the general population and among professionals in various domains, where they can lead to discrimination. Many interventions are used to reduce implicit bias. However, uncertainties remain as to their effectiveness. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review by searching ERIC, PUBMED and PSYCHINFO for peer-reviewed studies conducted on adults between May 2005 and April 2015, testing interventions designed to reduce implicit bias, with results measured using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) or sufficiently similar methods. RESULTS: 30 articles were identified as eligible. Some techniques, such as engaging with others' perspective, appear unfruitful, at least in short term implicit bias reduction, while other techniques, such as exposure to counterstereotypical exemplars, are more promising. Robust data is lacking for many of these interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Caution is thus advised when it comes to programs aiming at reducing biases. This does not weaken the case for implementing widespread structural and institutional changes that are multiply justified.

The Relationship Between Disability Prejudice and Institutionalization of People With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

There are decades of research indicating ableism is extremely prominent. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between disability prejudice and institutionalization of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). This study had two research questions: (1) How does disability prejudice impact the number of people with IDD who are institutionalized in a state? and (2) How does disability prejudice impact spending on institutions? To do so, we utilized secondary data about state utilization of institutions (fiscal year 2015), and disability prejudice data from 325,000 people. Findings revealed, states with higher disability prejudice institutionalize more people, even when controlling for size. Moreover, states with higher disability prejudice also spend more on institutional funding, regardless of size or wealth.

A Chip Off the Old Block: Parents' Subtle Ethnic Prejudice Predicts Children's Implicit Prejudice.

The increasing flow of immigrants in many European countries and the growing presence of children from immigrant families in schools makes it relevant to study the development of prejudice in children. Parents play an important role in shaping children's values and their attitudes toward members of other ethnic groups; an intergenerational transmission of prejudice has been found in a number of studies targeting adolescents. The present study aims to investigate the intergenerational transmission of ethnic prejudice in 3- to 9- year-old children and its relations to parenting styles. Parents' blatant and subtle ethnic prejudice and parenting style are measured together with children's explicit and implicit ethnic prejudice in pupils and parents of preschool and primary schools in the region of Rome, Italy (N = 318). Results show that parents' subtle prejudice predicts children's implicit prejudice regardless of the parenting style. Findings indicate that children might acquire prejudice by means of the parents' implicit cognition and automatic behavior and educational actions. Implications for future studies and insights for possible applied interventions are discussed.

Disgusted but not afraid: Feelings toward same-sex kissing reveal subtle homonegativity.

Overt sexual prejudice is declining, but heterosexuals who report little to no prejudice may still harbor subtle biases against gay men and lesbians. We examined implicit prejudice in a sample of 37 heterosexual college students who reported little or no sexual prejudice, using the Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP) and psychophysiological measures of affect. Skin conductance, heart rate, and facial electromyographic responses were recorded as participants viewed photos of mixed- and same-sex couples kissing and rated them on valence, arousal, and disgustingness. Sexual prejudice was evident in implicit (AMP) ratings and explicit ratings of valence and disgustingness, but not in psychophysiological responses. Results suggest that implicit prejudice harbored by young adults who endorse low levels of sexual prejudice is more cognitively than emotionally based, unlike the fear-based reactions commonly described for racism. Limitations and future directions for research are discussed.

Power effects on implicit prejudice and stereotyping: The role of intergroup face processing.

Power is thought to increase discrimination toward subordinate groups, yet its effect on different forms of implicit bias remains unclear. We tested whether power enhances implicit racial stereotyping, in addition to implicit prejudice (i.e., evaluative associations), and examined the effect of power on the automatic processing of faces during implicit tasks. Study 1 showed that manipulated high power increased both forms of implicit bias, relative to low power. Using a neural index of visual face processing (the N170 component of the ERP), Study 2 revealed that power affected the encoding of White ingroup vs. Black outgroup faces. Whereas high power increased the relative processing of outgroup faces during evaluative judgments in the prejudice task, it decreased the relative processing of outgroup faces during stereotype trait judgments. An indirect effect of power on implicit prejudice through enhanced processing of outgroup versus ingroup faces suggested a potential link between face processing and implicit bias. Together, these findings demonstrate that power can affect implicit prejudice and stereotyping as well as early processing of racial ingroup and outgroup faces.

The "Bad Is Black" Effect: Why People Believe Evildoers Have Darker Skin Than Do-Gooders.

Across six studies, people used a "bad is black" heuristic in social judgment and assumed that immoral acts were committed by people with darker skin tones, regardless of the racial background of those immoral actors. In archival studies of news articles written about Black and White celebrities in popular culture magazines (Study 1a) and American politicians (Study 1b), the more critical rather than complimentary the stories, the darker the skin tone of the photographs printed with the article. In the remaining four studies, participants associated immoral acts with darker skinned people when examining surveillance footage (Studies 2 and 4), and when matching headshots to good and bad actions (Studies 3 and 5). We additionally found that both race-based (Studies 2, 3, and 5) and shade-based (Studies 4 and 5) associations between badness and darkness determine whether people demonstrate the "bad is black" effect. We discuss implications for social perception and eyewitness identification.

Profound Versus Superficial Coping With Mortality Threats: Action Orientation Moderates Implicit but Not Explicit Outgroup Prejudice.

Mortality salience (MS) strengthens cultural values but individuals might differ in whether this process operates at a superficial, explicit level only or also at a profound, implicit level. Two studies investigated whether explicit and implicit attitudes toward Muslims after an MS induction vary as a function of threat-related action orientation (AOT), an efficient form of self-regulation of emotion and behavior that draws on the activation of the implicit, integrated self. In Study 1, there was a main effect of MS on explicit prejudice but only participants with high levels of AOT showed reduced implicit prejudice following MS. In Study 2, this interaction effect was replicated using an alternative implicit measure of prejudice. Defense in response to MS might thus not be a uniform phenomenon but might be composed of processes operating on different (i.e., profound vs. superficial) levels that vary with types of self-regulation such as high versus low AOT.