Subregion preference in the long-range connectome of pyramidal neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex.

BACKGROUND: The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is involved in complex functions containing multiple types of neurons in distinct subregions with preferential roles. The pyramidal neurons had wide-range projections to cortical and subcortical regions with subregional preferences. Using a combination of viral tracing and fluorescence micro-optical sectioning tomography (fMOST) in transgenic mice, we systematically dissected the whole-brain connectomes of intratelencephalic (IT) and pyramidal tract (PT) neurons in four mPFC subregions. RESULTS: IT and PT neurons of the same subregion projected to different target areas while receiving inputs from similar upstream regions with quantitative differences. IT and PT neurons all project to the amygdala and basal forebrain, but their axons target different subregions. Compared to subregions in the prelimbic area (PL) which have more connections with sensorimotor-related regions, the infralimbic area (ILA) has stronger connections with limbic regions. The connection pattern of the mPFC subregions along the anterior-posterior axis showed a corresponding topological pattern with the isocortex and amygdala but an opposite orientation correspondence with the thalamus. CONCLUSIONS: By using transgenic mice and fMOST imaging, we obtained the subregional preference whole-brain connectomes of IT and pyramidal tract PT neurons in the mPFC four subregions. These results provide a comprehensive resource for directing research into the complex functions of the mPFC by offering anatomical dissections of the different subregions.

A dendrite is a dendrite is a dendrite? Dendritic signal integration beyond the "antenna" model.

Neurons in central nervous systems receive multiple synaptic inputs and transform them into a largely standardized output to their target cells-the action potential. A simplified model posits that synaptic signals are integrated by linear summation and passive propagation towards the axon initial segment, where the threshold for spike generation is either crossed or not. However, multiple lines of research during past decades have shown that signal integration in individual neurons is much more complex, with important functional consequences at the cellular, network, and behavioral-cognitive level. The interplay between concomitant excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials depends strongly on the relative timing and localization of the respective synapses. In addition, dendrites contain multiple voltage-dependent conductances, which allow scaling of postsynaptic potentials, non-linear input processing, and compartmentalization of signals. Together, these features enable a rich variety of single-neuron computations, including non-linear operations and synaptic plasticity. Hence, we have to revise over-simplified messages from textbooks and use simplified computational models like integrate-and-fire neurons with some caution. This concept article summarizes the most important mechanisms of dendritic integration and highlights some recent developments in the field.

Persistent inward currents in human motoneurons: emerging evidence and future directions.

The manner in which motoneurons respond to excitatory and inhibitory inputs depends strongly on how their intrinsic properties are influenced by the neuromodulators serotonin and noradrenaline. These neuromodulators enhance the activation of voltage-gated channels that generate persistent (long-lasting) inward sodium and calcium currents (PICs) into the motoneurons. PICs are crucial for initiating, accelerating, and maintaining motoneuron firing. A greater accessibility to state-of-the-art techniques that allows both the estimation and examination of PIC modulation in tens of motoneurons in vivo has rapidly evolved our knowledge of how motoneurons amplify and prolong the effects of synaptic input. We are now in a position to gain substantial mechanistic insight into the role of PICs in motor control at an unprecedented pace. The present review briefly describes the effects of PICs on motoneuron firing and the methods available for estimating them before presenting the emerging evidence of how PICs can be modulated in health and disease. Our rapidly developing knowledge of the potent effects of PICs on motoneuron firing has the potential to improve our understanding of how we move, and points to new approaches to improve motor control. Finally, gaps in our understanding are highlighted and methodological advancements are suggested to encourage readers to explore outstanding questions to further elucidate PIC physiology.

Virtual Water Embodied in Interregional Energy Trade in China: A City-Level Analysis.

Large volumes of water are used in energy production for both primary (e.g., fuel extraction) and secondary energy (e.g., electricity). In countries such as China, with a large internal trade in fuels and long-distance transmission grids, this can result in considerable water inequalities. Previous research focused on the water impacts of energy production at the national and provincial levels, which is too coarse to identify the spatial differences and make specific case studies. Here, we take the next step toward a spatially explicit economically integrated water-use for energy assessment by combining a bottom-up assessment approach with a city-level multiregional input-output model. Specifically, we examine the water consumption of energy production in China, distinguishing between water for primary and secondary energy at the level of coal mines, oil and gas fields, and power plants for the first time. Of the total energy-related freshwater consumption of 4.9 Gm3 in 2017, primary energy accounted for 19% (940 Mm3) and secondary energy accounted for 81% (3955 Mm3). Coal was the largest water consumer for both primary and secondary energy (540 and 3880 Mm3, respectively), with both oil (361, and 0.5 Mm3, respectively) and gas (7 and 69 Mm3, respectively) also consuming large amounts. Intercity virtual water, that is, water embodied in energy trade across cities, reached 54% (2.6 Gm3) of energy-related freshwater consumption. Across China, 32% of cities see a bilateral trade in secondary- and primary-energy-related virtual water (e.g., Daqing city exports virtual water embodied in primary fuel to other cities that is then used to produce electricity in those cities, part of which is used back in Daqing via transmission). For these 32% of cities, 73% export more virtual water than import and 27% import more virtual water than export. This study reveals significant differences in city-level virtual water patterns (e.g., scale and direction) between primary and secondary energy to provide information for cities about their virtual water inflow and outflow and the potential collaboration partners for water management.

Global Freight Transport Emissions Responsibility.

The transportation of freight by land, sea and air underpins the complex network of global trade in physical commodities. Greenhouse gas emissions from freight transportation are a significant component of global emissions and are predicted to grow in coming decades. However, the inclusion of freight transport in emissions accounts and environmental impact studies is often incomplete. Both data availability and difficulties in allocating freight emissions to specific commodity trades contributes to this. In this study, international freight movements by transport mode are estimated from the bottom-up by imputing global freight transport routes. Emissions are estimated from these freight movements and integrated with a global multiregional input-output model. This enables the calculation of carbon footprints that are complete with respect to freight emissions. We estimate that global freight transport emissions contributed 2.8 Gt CO2-equiv in 2012, or about 41% of total transport emissions. In general, freight footprints contribute about 9% to national emissions footprints. While trade in physical commodities (such as construction materials, food and fossil fuels) are associated with the largest embodied freight emissions, services (such as public administration, education and health) also require significant freight transport. Using a consumption-based allocation of freight transport emissions allows the decarbonisation of other sectors to be complementary to the decarbonisation of transport through reduction in demand, for example through material efficiency strategies. To drive decarbonisation in maritime transport it is critical to include bunker emissions in national emissions inventories, thereby completing the system boundary.

The Fate of Microplastics in Rural Headwater Lake Catchments.

In this study, the fluxes of microplastics (mp) were quantified during a 12-month period for three rural headwater lake catchments in Muskoka-Haliburton, south-central Ontario, Canada. A novel catchment particle balance approach was used, incorporating inputs from atmospheric deposition and stream inflows against lake outflow and sedimentation. This approach provides the first reported observation-based estimates of microplastic residence time in freshwater lakes. Atmospheric deposition had the highest daily microplastic flux (3.95-8.09 mp/m2/day), compared to the inflow streams (2.21-2.34 mp/m2/day), suggesting that it is the dominant source of microplastics to rural regions. Approximately 44-71% of the deposited microplastics were retained in the terrestrial catchments and 30-49% of the microplastics in the stream inflows were retained in the study lakes. Given that output fluxes ranged from 0.72-3.76 mp/m2/day in the sediment and 1.18-1.66 mp/m2/day in the lake outflows, the microplastic residence time was estimated to be between 3 and 12 years, suggesting that lakes are an important reservoir for microplastics. Fibers were the dominant shape in atmospheric deposition, streamwater, and lake water; however, in lake sediment, there was a higher proportion of fragments. Across all media, poly(ethylene terephthalate) was the dominant polymer identified (23%).

Synergies quantification and evolution on air pollutant and CO2 emissions driven by different socio-economic effects.

Realizing a synergistic reduction of air pollutant and CO2 emissions (APCE) is an important approach to promote a green socio-economic transformation in China, and it can provide a solid foundation for the achievement of clean energy production and climate action under a sustainable development goal framework. The objective of this study is to explore the quantitative relationship and evolution of synergies between APCE in industrial sectors driven by different socio-economic effects from 2007 to 2020 in China. The results indicated that the main sectors of pollutant emissions had consistency, however, large differences in the reduction efficiency of emissions exist among pollutants. The efficiency in reducing CO2 emissions was about 48% lower when compared with reductions of SO2 (95%), NOx (86%), and smoke and dust (83%) emissions from 2007 to 2020. The effects of improved technology were the main contributor to a reduction in pollutant emissions, but the synergies between APCE driving by it were not achieved. While the synergies between APCE driven by structure and final demand effects were significant. The synergies between NOx and CO2 emissions were stronger driven by final demand structure and type effects, with correlation coefficients of 1.06 and 1.13, respectively. Besides, the degree of synergistic reduction between APCE in most industrial sectors was around zero. Therefore, the efficiency of synergistic pollution reduction should be improved with the development of a synergistic governance system for industrial sectors. The structural decomposition analysis based on input-output model combined with the cross-elasticity analysis method to quantitively synergies between APCE from the consumption (demand) perspective, considering the connections between industrial sectors with socio-economic developing, which would contribute to the industrial synergistic reduction and green transformation as the consumption driven gradually increasing.

Homeostasis in networks with multiple inputs.

Homeostasis, also known as adaptation, refers to the ability of a system to counteract persistent external disturbances and tightly control the output of a key observable. Existing studies on homeostasis in network dynamics have mainly focused on 'perfect adaptation' in deterministic single-input single-output networks where the disturbances are scalar and affect the network dynamics via a pre-specified input node. In this paper we provide a full classification of all possible network topologies capable of generating infinitesimal homeostasis in arbitrarily large and complex multiple inputs networks. Working in the framework of 'infinitesimal homeostasis' allows us to make no assumption about how the components are interconnected and the functional form of the associated differential equations, apart from being compatible with the network architecture. Remarkably, we show that there are just three distinct 'mechanisms' that generate infinitesimal homeostasis. Each of these three mechanisms generates a rich class of well-defined network topologies-called homeostasis subnetworks. More importantly, we show that these classes of homeostasis subnetworks provides a topological basis for the classification of 'homeostasis types': the full set of all possible multiple inputs networks can be uniquely decomposed into these special homeostasis subnetworks. We illustrate our results with some simple abstract examples and a biologically realistic model for the co-regulation of calcium ( Ca ) and phosphate ( PO 4 ) in the rat. Furthermore, we identify a new phenomenon that occurs in the multiple input setting, that we call homeostasis mode interaction, in analogy with the well-known characteristic of multiparameter bifurcation theory.

Assessing the economic ripple effect of flood disasters in light of the recovery process: Insights from an agent-based model.

To assess the economic ripple effect, this study integrates agent-based modeling (ABM) with a multiregional input-output (MRIO) table to develop an assessment model that considers capacity recovery process. The intermediate and final demands in the MRIO table are used to describe the agents' interdependence. Survival analysis is used to construct capacity rate curves. By defining the first- and second-order ripple effects, ABM is used to capture the ripple process in days. To conduct a case study, the service and retail sectors in Enshi in Hubei, China, are selected as disaster-affected sectors (they were severely affected by the July 17, 2020 flood disaster). The main findings are as follows: (1) With the first-order ripple effect, the losses caused by service and retail are concentrated within Enshi. Enshi's final demand, construction, and raw materials manufacturing sectors as well as Wuhan's construction sector are seriously affected. (2) With the second-order ripple effect, the losses caused by the service and retail sectors expand, forming a prominent industrial ripple chain: "service (retail)-raw materials manufacturing-construction." (3) The direct and indirect losses caused by the service sector are more significant than those caused by the retail sector. However, the loss ratio of the service sector is smaller than that of the retail sector because of its sound industrial structure and strong resilience. Hence, the indirect losses caused by different sectors are not entirely determined by their direct losses; instead, they are also related to the degree of perfection of the structures of different sectors.

How to improve the energy-saving performance of China's transport sector? An input-output perspective.

The transport sector proves a major energy consumer in China, but improving energy-saving performance in China's provincial transport sector from the lifecycle perspective remains unresolved. Thus, this study employs the environmentally extended multi-region input-output (MRIO) method, structural path analysis, and the newest MRIO table of China from 2017, to investigate how to improve the energy-saving performance from final demand structure, supply chain, and pathway perspectives. The relevant results are threefold. (1) Regarding the final demand structure level, the embodied energy consumption of China's transport sector is predominantly driven by investment from the production side, while that of the consumption side is primarily caused by exports. (2) At the supply chain level, production-side embodied energy consumption primarily occurs along a three-echelon supply chain, while that from the consumption side mostly occurs via a two-echelon supply chain. (3) At the pathway level, the production-side energy-saving performance of China's provincial transport sector is dominated by two pathways along the construction sector, including transport sector → construction sector → final demands, and transport sector → intermediate inputs → construction sector → final demands, while that of the consumption side is chiefly determined by three pathways along internal transportation chains.

Evaluating carbon emissions reduction compliance based on 'dual control' policies of energy consumption and carbon emissions in China.

Dual control policies aim to effectively reduce energy consumption and carbon emission by setting targets for total volume and intensity control. With global climate change becoming increasingly serious. China, as a large energy-consuming and carbon-emitting country, faces a huge challenge to reduce carbon emissions. The transition from the "dual control of energy consumption" to the "dual control of carbon emissions" in China is necessary to optimize energy structures, promote energy conservation, reduce carbon emissions, and reach carbon neutrality. This study utilizes multi-regional input-output models to evaluate the results toward both goals from production-based, consumption-based, and income-based perspectives. The findings indicate that "dual control of carbon emissions" is a more precise approach than "dual control of energy consumption". Some provinces have met the latter goal while still falling short of the former. Provinces having met their production-based energy intensity and carbon emission intensity targets, but having failed their consumption-based and income-based targets, are identified to develop a comprehensive and accurate assessment of these targets. A net outflow of embodied energy and carbon emissions is observed among provinces in less-developed central and southern regions to more-developed eastern and northern regions. Suggestions and policy implications based on these findings include establishing a comprehensive evaluation of energy and carbon intensity, considering both consumption-based and income-based perspectives, as well as facilitating enhanced cooperation among developed and developing provinces.

Increasing role of transboundary food-related water footprints by regional income groups.

Income group heterogeneity and transboundary food-related water footprints are essential for water resource management. Previous studies have not fully characterized the transboundary food-related water footprints by regional income groups. Taking Guangdong as an example, this study calculates the local and transboundary food-related water footprints by income groups and explores relevant socioeconomic factors during 2007-2017. Results show that the proportion of transboundary food-related water footprints by income groups has increased during 2007-2017. By 2017, nearly half of food-related water footprints of income groups happened in external regions. In particular, the high-income groups of Guangdong transferred large amounts of food-related water footprints to specific northern regions (e.g., Heilongjiang and Jilin). However, socioeconomic changes of these northern regions contributed to the increase of food-related water footprints by income groups. Fortunately, the transitions of food consumption structures of income groups helped to reduce the external food-related water footprints. We also observed that the effects of dietary behavior changes were group heterogeneous. The findings of this study can provide scientific foundations for group-targeted dietary behavior optimization to reduce water footprints, as well as interregional collaboration for sustainable food and water resource management.

Enhancing New Zealand's emissions trading scheme: A comprehensive sector-level assessment for a stronger regulatory framework.

Certain nations have opted for stimulus-based regulations to curtail emissions, build a liveable, environmentally friendly setting, and work towards aspirational mitigation targets. New Zealand (NZ) prefers an Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) to taxation, mitigating emissions on one hand while retaining incentives for economic growth on the other. As a result, NZ has initiated a legal framework since 2008 to allow its economic sectors to engage in ETS and minimize emissions. Yet, selecting the appropriate sectors and effectively adjusting sector-specific regulations remain critical and complex challenges in the global design of ETS since both excessive and insufficient intervention can lead to inefficiencies in the system's functioning. Therefore, this study begins validating the NZ ETS's abatement potential regarding sectoral carbon intensity by executing the double machine learning techniques, consolidating the ETS efficacy that has robustly mitigated sectoral carbon intensity in NZ during 2006-2020. However, this conclusion seems invalid at the disaggregated level when focusing on forward-backward linkages, where NZ's input-output tables furnish a compelling scenario of sectoral dependencies and the products (residuals) they provide. Altogether, the regulatory requirements are either too strict or too lax, leaving out five of the 24 (as a whole) key sectors. Rather, the ETS could be powerful, providing these five key sectors are well tackled, necessitating a reformulation of the ongoing ETS regulatory regime.

Does interstate trade of agricultural products in the U.S. alleviate land and water stress?

Interregional free-trade of agricultural products is expected to transfer embodied (virtual) water from more to less water-productive regions. However, irrigation in semi-arid to arid regions may significantly push up agricultural productivity but cause local water scarcity. This may result in a puzzle: inter-regional trade may save overall water consumption but lead to more severe local water scarcity. An analogous puzzle may exist for farmland, for instance, trade may save farmland but not address farmland scarcity. To test the existence of these two important puzzles, we applied environmentally extended multi-regional input-output models to obtain the inter-regional virtual agricultural water and land transfer across 48 states of the conterminous U.S. and estimated their agricultural land and water footprints in 2017. Such a detailed analysis showed that while the land-abundant Midwestern states exported a sizable amount of virtual farmland to other densely populated areas and foreign nations, the water-stressed Western U.S. and Southwestern U.S. states, like California, Arizona, and New Mexico, exported considerable amounts of water-intensive crops such as fruits, vegetables and tree nuts to the Eastern U.S. and overseas, thus worsen the local water scarcity of those water scarce states. Our analysis highlights a critical dilemma inherent in an economic productivity-focused incentive regime: It frequently leads to increased withdrawal of scarce water. Therefore, resource scarcity rents need to be reflected in inter-regional trade with the support of local environmental policies.

Revealing the hidden carbon flows in global industrial Sectors-Based on the perspective of linkage network structure.

This paper interprets the implicit carbon flows in global industrial sectors from a network perspective. Using the SNA-IO integrated model, along with cross-border input-output data from Eora26 (2000-2020) and global energy balance data, the implicit carbon emissions of global industrial sectors and their evolution are analyzed. A carbon emission network structure from an industrial chain perspective is proposed. The results indicate that the carbon emissions responsibility of an industry is not only associated with its own energy consumption. It also involves the carbon emissions transfer resulting from the exchange of products and services between upstream and downstream industries. Block model analysis reveals the carbon emission transfer relationships and their interconnections among global industrial sectors, tending towards an industry clustering pattern where "production side" converges with "demand side" coexisting in supply and demand. There are noticeable inequalities in wealth gains and environmental burdens between these blocks. This paper can provide targeted carbon reduction policy recommendations for various industrial sectors to participate in global responsibility allocation and promote the formation of a low-carbon global industrial sector network.

Spatially explicit analysis of production and consumption responsibility for the PM2.5-related health burden towards beautiful China.

Promoting good health and ensuring responsible production and consumption are essential components of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by of the United Nations, as well as the goals of beautiful China. While the health impacts of air pollution have garnered significant attention, there remains a paucity of studies comparing the disparities in responsibility arising from production versus consumption. This paper integrates the Weather Research and Forecasting - Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions (WRF-CAMx) model, the multiregional input‒output (MRIO) model, and the global exposure mortality model (GEMM) to assess the extent of PM2.5-related premature deaths caused by production and consumption activities in 30 Chinese provinces. The findings reveal a spatial mismatch in health burdens between production and consumption. Considering pollutant emissions and their transfer only through the supply chain leads to the finding that the net outflow of emissions from producers is mainly located in most of the northern provinces of China. However, when atmospheric transport and health impacts are included, the producing provinces are mainly located in central China, while the consuming provinces are located in the southeastern coastal and remote western and northern regions. Additionally, the long-range impact of consumption provinces with respect to the health burden is more than twice as large as that of production provinces, and its potential impact on the health burden cannot be ignored. From a sectoral perspective, production emissions from the non-electricity industry and services sectors contribute to 60% of the health burden, while their consumption emissions contribute to over 80% of the health burden. Furthermore, consumption activities in the non-electricity industry and services sectors significantly influence production emissions in the transport, agriculture, and electricity sectors. The geographical separation of consumption and production regions facilitated by trade is a critical yet often overlooked aspect in current regional air quality planning in China. A more comprehensive analysis of life-cycle emissions driven by final consumption could yield greater reductions compared to direct production reductions.

The impact of regional policy implementation on the decoupling of carbon emissions and economic development.

The contradiction between economic growth demands and the achievement of the "dual-carbon" goals at the regional level is a pressing issue in China. As a significant economic and cultural center in the western region of China, the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration has experienced rapid development and urbanization, making it one of the key areas for national development. Therefore, greater attention should be given to carbon emission reduction in this region. This study focuses on the dataset from 2010 to 2019 in the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration, utilizing an input-output table to construct a carbon dioxide emission inventory. The research investigates the impact of regional classification on carbon emission levels within the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration. Furthermore, the Tapio decoupling analysis method is employed to assess the decoupling coefficient between regional economic development and carbon emissions. Additionally, the Theil index inequality analysis method is utilized to measure the disparities in per capita carbon emissions among cities within the region. Research findings indicate the following: 1) The regional classification of the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration is an effective policy for reducing regional carbon emissions and promoting carbon emissions reduction. 2) There exist variations in energy and industrial structures among cities within the urban agglomeration, necessitating tailored measures for low-carbon transition based on the specific circumstances of each city. 3) The regional classification of the urban agglomeration significantly influences the degree of decoupling between economic development and carbon emissions, with a trend towards stronger decoupling. The study suggests that cities within the Guanzhong Plain urban agglomeration should adopt measures aligned with their natural conditions and economic characteristics to achieve a low-carbon transition. Leveraging the regional cooperation capacity of the urban agglomeration is crucial to decouple economic development from carbon emissions, thereby promoting sustainable economic growth and environmental protection in a mutually beneficial manner.

Effects of jaw clenching and mental stress on persistent inward currents estimated by two different methods.

Spinal motoneuron firing depends greatly on persistent inward currents (PICs), which in turn are facilitated by the neuromodulators serotonin and noradrenaline. The aim of this study was to determine whether jaw clenching (JC) and mental stress (MS), which may increase neuromodulator release, facilitate PICs in human motoneurons. The paired motor unit (MU) technique was used to estimate PIC contribution to motoneuron firing. Surface electromyograms were collected using a 32-channel matrix on gastrocnemius medialis (GM) during voluntary, ramp, plantar flexor contractions. MU discharges were identified, and delta frequency (ΔF), a measure of recruitment-derecruitment hysteresis, was calculated. Additionally, another technique was used (VibStim) that evokes involuntary contractions that persist after cessation of combined Achilles tendon vibration and triceps surae neuromuscular electrical stimulation. VibStim measures of plantar flexor torque and soleus activity may reflect PIC activation. ΔF was not significantly altered by JC (p = .679, n = 18, 9 females) or MS (p = .147, n = 14, 5 females). However, all VibStim variables quantifying involuntary torque and muscle activity during and after vibration cessation were significantly increased in JC (p < .011, n = 20, 10 females) and some, but not all, increased in MS (p = .017-.05, n = 19, 10 females). JC and MS significantly increased the magnitude of involuntary contractions (VibStim) but had no effect on GM ΔF during voluntary contractions. Effects of increased neuromodulator release on PIC contribution to motoneuron firing might differ between synergists or be context dependent. Based on these data, the background level of voluntary contraction and, hence, both neuromodulation and ionotropic inputs could influence neuromodulatory PIC enhancement.

Material and Carbon Footprints of Machinery Capital.

Machinery and equipment, integral as technology-specific capital goods, play a dual role in climate change: it acts as both a mitigator and an exacerbator due to its carbon-intensive life cycle. Despite their importance, current climate mitigation analyses often overlook these items, leaving a gap in comprehensive analyses of their material stock and environmental impacts. To address this, our research integrates input-output analysis (IOA) with dynamic material flow analysis (d-MFA) to assess the carbon and material footprints of machinery. It finds that in 2019, machinery production required 30% of global metal production and 8% of global carbon emissions. Between 2000 and 2019, the metal footprint of the stock of machinery grew twice as fast as the economy. To illustrate the global implications and scale, we spotlight key countries. China's rise in machinery material stock is noteworthy, surpassing the United States in 2008 in total amount and achieving half of the US per capita level by 2019. Our study also contrasts economic depreciation─a value-centric metric─with the tangible lifespan of machinery, revealing how much the physical size of the capital stock exceeds its book values. As physical machinery stocks saturate, new machinery can increasingly be built from metals recycled from retired machinery.

Nutritional, environmental and economic impacts of ultra-processed food consumption in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the full life cycle impacts of ultra-processed foods (UPF) for key environmental, economic and nutritional indicators to identify trade-offs between UPF contribution to broad-scope sustainability. DESIGN: Using 24-h dietary recalls along with an input-output database for the Australian economy, dietary environmental and economic impacts were quantified in this national representative cross-sectional analysis. Food items were classified into non-UPF and UPF using the NOVA system, and dietary energy contribution from non-UPF and UPF fractions in diets was estimated. Thereafter, associations between nutritional, environmental and economic impacts of non-UPF and UPF fractions of diets were examined using a multi-dimensional nutritional geometry representation. SETTING: National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey 2011-2012 of Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Respondents (n 5344) aged > 18 years with 1 d of 24-h dietary recall data excluding respondents with missing values and outlier data points and under reporters. RESULTS: Australian diets rich in UPF were associated with reduced nutritional quality, high greenhouse gas emissions, energy use, and increased employment and income associated with the food supply chains. The environmental and economic impacts associated with the UPF portion of diets become more distinct when the diets are standardised to average protein recommendation. CONCLUSION: Increased consumption of UPF has socio-economic benefits, but this comes with adverse effects on the environment and public health. Consideration of such trade-offs is important in identifying policy and other mechanisms regarding UPF for establishing healthy and sustainable food systems.