Prenatal cocaine exposure and self-reported behavioral adjustments from ages 12 to 21: environmental pathways.

BACKGROUND: In a birth-cohort study, we followed offspring with prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) to investigate longitudinal associations of PCE with self-reported behavioral adjustment from early adolescence to emerging adulthood (EA). Environmental pathways (family functioning, non-kinship care, maltreatment) were specified as potential mediators of PCE. METHODS: Participants were 372 (190 PCE; 47% male), primarily Black, low socioeconomic status, enrolled at birth. Internalizing and externalizing behaviors were assessed using Youth Self-Report at ages 12 and 15 and Adult Self-Report at age 21. Extended random-intercept cross-lagged panel modeling was used to account for potential bidirectional relationships between internalizing and externalizing behaviors over time, examining potential mediators. RESULTS: Adjusting for covariates, significant indirect effects were found for each mediator at different ages. For family functioning, these were both internalizing (ß = 0.83, p = 0.04) and externalizing behaviors (ß = 1.58, p = 0.02) at age 12 and externalizing behaviors at age 15 (ß = 0.51, p = 0.03); for non-kinship care, externalizing behaviors at ages 12 (ß = 0.63, p = 0.02) and 15 (ß = 0.20, p = 0.03); and for maltreatment, both internalizing and externalizing behaviors at ages 15 (ß = 0.64, p = 0.02 for internalizing; ß = 0.50, p = 0.03 for externalizing) and 21 (ß = 1.39, p = 0.01 for internalizing; ß = 1.11, p = 0.01 for externalizing). Direct associations of PCE with internalizing and externalizing behaviors were not observed, nor cross-lagged relationships between internalizing and externalizing behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Negative associations of PCE with behavioral adjustment persist into EA via environmental pathways, specifying intervention points to disrupt adverse pathways toward healthy development.

Contamination bias in the estimation of child maltreatment causal effects on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems.

BACKGROUND: When unaddressed, contamination in child maltreatment research, in which some proportion of children recruited for a nonmaltreated comparison group are exposed to maltreatment, downwardly biases the significance and magnitude of effect size estimates. This study extends previous contamination research by investigating how a dual-measurement strategy of detecting and controlling contamination impacts causal effect size estimates of child behavior problems. METHODS: This study included 634 children from the LONGSCAN study with 63 cases of confirmed child maltreatment after age 8 and 571 cases without confirmed child maltreatment. Confirmed child maltreatment and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were recorded every 2 years between ages 4 and 16. Contamination in the nonmaltreated comparison group was identified and controlled by either a prospective self-report assessment at ages 12, 14, and 16 or by a one-time retrospective self-report assessment at age 18. Synthetic control methods were used to establish causal effects and quantify the impact of contamination when it was not controlled, when it was controlled for by prospective self-reports, and when it was controlled for by retrospective self-reports. RESULTS: Rates of contamination ranged from 62% to 67%. Without controlling for contamination, causal effect size estimates for internalizing behaviors were not statistically significant. Causal effects only became statistically significant after controlling contamination identified from either prospective or retrospective reports and effect sizes increased by between 17% and 54%. Controlling contamination had a smaller impact on effect size increases for externalizing behaviors but did produce a statistically significant overall effect, relative to the model ignoring contamination, when prospective methods were used. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of contamination in a nonmaltreated comparison group can underestimate the magnitude and statistical significance of causal effect size estimates, especially when investigating internalizing behavior problems. Addressing contamination can facilitate the replication of results across studies.

Gestational PBDE concentrations, persistent externalizing, and emerging internalizing behaviors in adolescents: The HOME study.

BACKGROUND: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are ubiquitous environmental chemicals used as flame retardants in commercial and consumer products. Gestational PBDE concentrations are associated with adverse behaviors in children; however, the persistence of these associations into adolescence remains understudied. OBJECTIVE: We estimated the association of gestational PBDE serum concentrations with early adolescent self- and caregiver-reported behaviors at age 12 years and determined the consistency with previously observed associations in childhood with caregiver-reported behaviors in a prospective pregnancy and birth cohort. METHODS: We measured maternal serum concentrations of five individual PBDE congeners and created a summary exposure variable (∑5BDE: 28, -47, -99, -100 and -153) during pregnancy. At age 12 years, we assessed behaviors for 237 adolescents using self- and caregiver-reports with the Behavioral Assessment System for Children-3 (BASC3). We used multivariable linear regression models to estimate covariate-adjusted associations of lipid standardized, log10-transformed gestational PBDE concentrations with BASC3 scores. We obtained estimates and 95% confidence intervals through a bootstrapping approach. We evaluated potential effect measure modification (EMM) of adolescent sex by examining sex-stratified regression models and estimating the EMM p-values. RESULTS: Gestational PBDE concentrations were positively associated with adolescent-reported BASC3 composite indices for inattention & hyperactivity (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, ∑5BDE), internalizing problems (BDE-28, -47, -99), functional impairment (BDE-28, ∑5BDE), and emotional symptoms (BDE-28). Gestational PBDE concentrations were positively associated with caregiver-reported BASC3 composite indices for externalizing problems (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, ∑5BDE) and behavioral symptoms (BDE-99). For caregiver reported behaviors, we observed stronger associations with gestational BDE concentrations among males, especially for executive functioning (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, ∑5BDE). DISCUSSION: Gestational PBDE serum concentrations were associated with self-reported internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in early adolescence. Caregiver-reported externalizing behaviors recognized during childhood remain associated with gestational PBDE concentrations and persist into early adolescence. Internalizing behaviors were less recognized by caregivers.

Siblings at home: Moderating influence of sibling presence and composition on the relation between problem behaviors and Theory of Mind in early childhood.

Despite the prevalence of internalizing and externalizing difficulties in children, the impact of these problem behaviors on the development of important social cognitive skills, such as Theory of Mind (ToM), is not well-understood. Indeed, many studies that have explored relations between problem behaviors and ToM report inconsistent findings. A possible reason for these disparities may be a lack of accounting for social protective factors within the home, such as the presence and number of siblings. Here, we explored the moderating influence of sibling presence and number on the relation between problem behaviors (i.e., internalizing and externalizing) and ToM. A total of 184 children (88 boys; Mage = 64.6 months, SD = 10.39) completed six well-validated ToM tasks while mothers reported on their children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Children who had siblings living in the same home exhibited higher ToM than children without siblings. In addition, both sibling presence and number of siblings moderated the relation between children's externalizing behaviors and ToM, such that in children without siblings externalizing behaviors were negatively associated with ToM. In contrast, children with siblings had similar ToM regardless of externalizing behaviors. As well, children with relatively fewer siblings and higher externalizing behaviors displayed lower ToM than children with relatively more siblings and higher externalizing behaviors. We did not detect a moderating effect of sibling presence or number on the relation between internalizing behaviors and ToM. These findings provide support for siblings' protective utility within the context of children's social cognition.

Comparing two measures of neighborhood quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the adolescent brain cognitive development study.

PURPOSE: There is widespread recognition of the importance and complexity of measuring neighborhood contexts within research on child psychopathology. In this study, we assessed the cross-sectional associations between two measures of neighborhood quality and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in preadolescence. METHODS: Drawing on baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (n = 10,577 preadolescents), we examined two multi-component assessments of neighborhood quality in relation to children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms: the Area Deprivation Index (ADI), which measures socioeconomic adversity, and the Child Opportunity Index 2.0 (COI), which measures economic, educational, and environmental opportunity. Both measures were categorized into quintiles. We then used mixed-effects linear regression models to examine bivariate and adjusted associations. RESULTS: The bivariate associations displayed strong inverse associations between the COI and ADI and externalizing symptoms, with a graded pattern of fewer externalizing behaviors with increasing neighborhood quality. Only the ADI was associated with externalizing behaviors in models adjusted for child and family characteristics. We did not observe a clear association between either measure of neighborhood quality and internalizing behaviors in bivariate or adjusted models. CONCLUSIONS: Neighborhood quality, as measured by the COI and ADI, was associated with externalizing behaviors in preadolescent children. The association using the ADI persisted after adjustment for family-level characteristics, including financial strain. Our results indicate that different assessments of neighborhood quality display distinct associations with preadolescent behavioral health. Future research is needed to assess the association between neighborhood quality and behavior trajectories and to identify place-based intervention strategies.

Direct and Indirect Longitudinal Associations of Mother and Father Engagement in Middle Childhood on Adolescent Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors.

Parent engagement is an important aspect of parenting during childhood. However, little is known about the unique longitudinal associations of mother and father engagement with adolescents' externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors. This study uses Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study data to examine the potential direct and indirect associations of parent engagement at age 9 on adolescent externalizing and internalizing behaviors at age 15. The analytic sample size is 1349, and at age 9, the mean age of children was 9.40 years (SD = 0.37). Forty-eight percent of children were female and 68% of them were from the married families. The results show that while controlling for mother engagement, higher father engagement at age 9 was directly associated with fewer adolescent internalizing behaviors, only among adolescent boys and in married families. In addition, among adolescent boys, father engagement had an indirect association with externalizing behaviors through father-child closeness. Mother engagement, however, is only found to have an indirect association with adolescents' externalizing and internalizing behaviors through maternal hostility (while controlling for father engagement). The results for mother engagement held for boys and in married families only. The findings indicate that both mother and father engagement during childhood is important and helpful to prevent adolescent problem behaviors directly or indirectly via parent-child relationship.

Greater Gestational Vitamin D Status is Associated with Reduced Childhood Behavioral Problems in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes Program.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin D deficiency is common in pregnancy. Vitamin D plays an important role in the developing brain, and deficiency may impair childhood behavioral development. OBJECTIVES: This study examined the relationship between gestational 25(OH)D concentrations and childhood behavior in the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program. METHODS: Mother-child dyads from ECHO cohorts with data available on prenatal (first trimester through delivery) or cord blood 25(OH)D and childhood behavioral outcomes were included. Behavior was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire or the Child Behavior Checklist, and data were harmonized using a crosswalk conversion. Linear mixed-effects models examined associations of 25(OH)D with total, internalizing, and externalizing problem scores while adjusting for important confounders, including age, sex, and socioeconomic and lifestyle factors. The effect modification by maternal race was also assessed. RESULTS: Early (1.5-5 y) and middle childhood (6-13 y) outcomes were examined in 1688 and 1480 dyads, respectively. Approximately 45% were vitamin D deficient [25(OH)D < 20 ng/mL], with Black women overrepresented in this group. In fully adjusted models, 25(OH)D concentrations in prenatal or cord blood were negatively associated with externalizing behavior T-scores in middle childhood [-0.73 (95% CI: -1.36, -0.10) per 10 ng/mL increase in gestational 25(OH)D]. We found no evidence of effect modification by race. In a sensitivity analysis restricted to those with 25(OH)D assessed in prenatal maternal samples, 25(OH)D was negatively associated with externalizing and total behavioral problems in early childhood. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy, particularly among Black women, and revealed evidence of an association between lower gestational 25(OH)D and childhood behavioral problems. Associations were more apparent in analyses restricted to prenatal rather than cord blood samples. Interventions to correct vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy should be explored as a strategy to improve childhood behavioral outcomes.

A path model examination: maternal anxiety and parenting mediate the association between maternal adverse childhood experiences and children's internalizing behaviors.

BACKGROUND: Children of mothers with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are at increased risk for developmental problems. However, the mechanisms through which a mother's experience of ACEs are transmitted to her offspring are understudied. The current study investigates potential modifiable mediators (maternal psychopathology and parenting) of the association between maternal ACEs and children's behavioral problems. METHODS: We utilized data from a pregnancy cohort study (N = 1030; CANDLE study) to investigate longitudinal associations between maternal ACEs, postpartum anxiety, observed parenting behavior, and child internalizing behaviors (meanage = 4.31 years, s.d. age = 0.38) in a racially diverse (67% Black; 33% White/Other) sample. We used structural equation modeling to test for direct associations between maternal ACEs and children's internalizing behaviors, as well as indirect associations via two simple mediations (maternal anxiety and parenting), and one serial mediation (sequence of maternal anxiety to parenting). RESULTS: Simple mediation results indicated that maternal anxiety and cognitive growth fostering behaviors independently mediated the association between maternal ACEs and child internalizing. We observed no evidence of a serial mediation from ACEs to internalizing via the effects of maternal anxiety on parenting. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports and refines extant literature by confirming the intergenerational association between maternal ACEs and child internalizing behaviors in a large, diverse sample, and identifies potential modifiable mediators: maternal anxiety and parenting behaviors related to fostering cognitive development. Findings may inform interventions targeting mothers who have experienced ACEs and suggest that providing support around specific parenting behaviors and addressing maternal anxiety may reduce internalizing behaviors in children.

The interplay between parenting and environmental sensitivity in the prediction of children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors during COVID-19.

The interplay of parenting and environmental sensitivity on children's behavioral adjustment during, and immediately after, the COVID-19 lockdown restrictions was investigated in two longitudinal studies involving Italian preschoolers (Study 1, N = 72; 43% girls, Myears = 3.82(1.38)) and primary school children (Study 2, N = 94; 55% girls, Myears = 9.08(0.56)). Data were collected before and during the first-wave lockdown (Studies 1 and 2) and one month later (Study 1). Parental stress and parent-child closeness were measured. Markers of environmental sensitivity in children were temperamental fearfulness and Sensory Processing Sensitivity. Results showed little change in externalizing and internalizing behaviors over time, but differences emerged when considering parenting and children's environmental sensitivity. In preschoolers, greater parenting stress was related to a stronger increase in internalizing and externalizing behaviors, with children high in fearful temperament showing a more marked decrease in externalizing behaviors when parenting stress was low. In school-aged children, parent-child closeness emerged as a protective factor for internalizing and externalizing behaviors during COVID-19, with children high in Sensory Processing Sensitivity showing a marked decrease in internalizing behaviors when closeness was high. Implications for developmental theory and practice in times of pandemic are discussed.

Controlling contamination in child maltreatment research: Impact on effect size estimates for child behavior problems measured throughout childhood and adolescence.

Contamination, when members of a comparison or control condition are exposed to the event or intervention under scientific investigation, is a methodological phenomenon that downwardly biases the magnitude of effect size estimates. This study tested a novel approach for controlling contamination in observational child maltreatment research. Data from The Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN; N = 1354) were obtained to estimate the risk of confirmed child maltreatment on trajectories of internalizing and externalizing behaviors before and after controlling contamination. Baseline models, where contamination was uncontrolled, demonstrated a risk for greater internalizing (b = .29, p < .001, d = .40) and externalizing (b = .14, p = .040, d = .19) behavior trajectories. Final models, where contamination was controlled by separating the comparison condition into subgroups that did or did not self-report maltreatment, also demonstrated risks for greater internalizing (b = .37, p < .001, d = .51) and externalizing (b = .22, p = .028, d = .29) behavior trajectories. However, effect size estimates in final models were 27.5%-52.6% larger compared to baseline models. Controlling contamination in child maltreatment research can strengthen effect size estimates for child behavior problems, aiding future child maltreatment research design and analysis.

Developmental trajectories of internalizing distress among ethnic minoritized mothers following childbirth: Associations with early child psychological adjustment.

A substantial body of work has established that mothers' internalizing distress can negatively affect children's socioemotional development. Yet few studies have examined how distinct patterns of mothers' distress over time differentially impact child behaviors across early childhood. To address this gap, the current study explored developmental trajectories of mothers' internalizing distress and examined the associations of these patterns with child adjustment outcomes. Mexican immigrant, Dominican immigrant, and African American mothers (N = 272) were annually assessed for internalizing distress over the first 6 years following childbirth. Children's psychological adjustment (internalizing, externalizing, and hyperactivity behaviors) was measured at the last yearly assessment in first grade. A growth mixture model revealed two distinct classes of distress where mothers were classified as having low stable distress (82.4%) or moderate distress that began as stable then declined when their children were 64 months old (17.6%). Children of mothers in the moderate, late decline class showed greater internalizing, externalizing, and hyperactivity behaviors in the first grade compared to children of mothers in the low stable class. Findings highlight the necessity of supporting the mental health of ethnic minoritized mothers following childbirth and further expand our knowledge of family psychopathology to promote healthy psychological adjustment in children.

Behavioral gender differences in school-age children with autism.

This study examined differences in internalizing and externalizing behaviors between school-aged boys and girls diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Eighty-nine children between the ages of 8 and 16 years participated in this study: 17 girls (M = 11.5 years, SD = 2.3) and 72 boys (M = 11.3 years, SD = 2.2). Participants were matched on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition and Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ > 64). The results indicated that, girls had higher reported instances of Bullying, less Anger Control, and poorer Emotional Self-Control than boys on the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition. Groups did not differ on subscales of the Social Communication Scale. While evidence of increased externalizing behaviors is less common in girls, there is evidence supporting these differing behaviors that warrant further research.

Age-related differences in behavioral problems between shy adults and shy children.

Although both concurrent and longitudinal relations between shyness and behavioral problems are well-established in childhood, there is relatively less work exploring these associations in emerging adulthood. In addition, age-related differences in the strength of these relations in child and adult samples have not been fully explored within the same study. We collected measures of shyness, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and social problems in a sample of 94 typically developing 6-year-old children (50 female; Mage = 78.3 months, SD = 3.1 months) and 775 undergraduate students (633 female, Mage = 18.2 years, SD = 0.9 years) from parent-reported and self-reported questionnaires, respectively. Shyness interacted with age in predicting internalizing behaviors and social problems, but not externalizing behaviors. Specifically, shyness was concurrently and positively related to internalizing and social problems in young adulthood, but this relation was not found in childhood. Findings are discussed in terms of developmental consequences of shyness across the lifespan and limitations of relying on ratings from different informants when examining age-related differences.

Negative Emotionality and Internalizing Behaviors in Preschool Children: Moderating Role of Inhibitory Control.

Negative emotionality in childhood is typically positively associated with internalizing behaviors, whereas inhibitory control is negatively associated with internalizing behaviors. Recent work, however, has also found that inhibitory control paradoxically increases risk for internalizing behaviors in the context of some reactive temperamental styles. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether inhibitory control moderated the association between negative emotionality and prospective internalizing behaviors in typically developing preschoolers (N = 104, 51 girls, Mage = 3.46 years, SDage = 0.19). We found that negative emotionality at T1 was only positively associated with internalizing behaviors at T2 in preschoolers with relatively higher inhibitory control. Our results suggest that relatively high levels of inhibitory control may be less adaptive for children who also have relatively high levels of negative emotionality. Findings are discussed in the context of cognitive overcontrol in understanding risk for internalizing behaviors before formal school entry.

Maternal caregiver's typologies and internalized behaviors in African American adolescents living in urban public housing.

AIMS: This study explores how variations in maternal caregiver types may be associated with adolescents' internalized behaviors (i.e., depressive symptoms) and resources (i.e., attitudes toward delinquent behaviors and efficacious beliefs). METHOD: Using a sample of 375 African American youth from public housing in three large US cities, we used Latent Profile Analysis to identify various maternal caregiver classes. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess whether youth can be correctly classified into maternal caregiver classes based on their internalized behaviors. RESULTS: Three maternal caregiver classes were identified. Results suggest youth living with high encouragement and high (supervision) maternal caregivers were associated with more conventional attitudes, higher self-efficacy, and lower depressive symptoms. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight how maternal caregivers can influence the internalizing behaviors of African American youth in US public housing. Individual, community, and system-level interventions can be leveraged to support the impact of these maternal caregivers.

Dual trajectories of parenting self-efficacy and depressive symptoms in new, postpartum mothers and socioemotional adjustment in early childhood: A growth mixture model.

Postpartum depression and low parental self-efficacy (PSE) are risk factors for poor child behavior. Little is known, however, about the course of dual trajectories of cooccurring depressive symptoms and PSE or its impact on children's socioemotional development. This study sought to identify trajectories of postpartum PSE and depressive symptoms in new, first-time mothers using growth mixture modeling. Results demonstrated a class of women with "low risk" (88.8%) who manifested low levels of depression and high levels of PSE during the postpartum period; a second group of women, labeled "early risk" (6.3%) with high levels of depression that decreased over time but lower levels of PSE that remained fairly stable; and a final trajectory group deemed the "late-risk" class (4.9%) with initially low levels of depression and high levels of PSE that significantly increased and decreased, respectively, over the period. Early childhood trauma, parenting stress, and poor parenting practices were associated membership in a high-risk class. Mothers in the high-risk groups reported children with more aggressive and defiant behavior at age 3. We conclude by discussing the implications of our findings for developing effective and sensitive interventions.

La depresión posterior al parto y la autoeficacia de los padres (PSE) son factores de riesgo para la débil conducta del niño. Poco se sabe, sin embargo, acerca del curso de las trayectorias duales de síntomas depresivos que ocurren simultáneamente y PSE o su impacto en el desarrollo socioemocional de los niños. Este estudio se propuso identificar las trayectorias del PSE posterior al parto y los síntomas depresivos en nuevas, primerizas mamás usando un modelo de mezcla de crecimiento. Los resultados mostraron una clase de mujeres con 'bajo riesgo' (88.8%) que manifestaron bajos niveles de depresión y altos niveles de PSE durante el período posterior al parto; un segundo grupo de mujeres, llamado 'de temprano riesgo' (6.3%) con altos niveles de depresión que disminuyeron a lo largo del tiempo, pero más bajos niveles de PSE que se mantuvieron equitativamente estables; y un final grupo de trayectoria denominado la clase del 'riesgo tardío' (4.9%) con iniciales bajos niveles de depresión y altos niveles de PSE que significativamente aumentaron y disminuyeron, respectivamente, a lo largo del período. El trauma en la temprana niñez, el estés de crianza, así como las débiles prácticas de crianza fueron afiliaciones asociadas dentro de una clase de alto riesgo. Las mamás en los grupos de alto riesgo reportaron niños con conductas más agresivas y desafiantes a la edad de tres años. Concluimos con una discusión de las implicaciones de nuestros resultados para desarrollar intervenciones eficaces y sensibles.

La dépression postpartum et l'auto-efficacité parentale (abrégé en français ici AEP) sont des facteurs de risque pour les problèmes de comportement de l'enfant. On sait peu de choses, cependant, à propos du cours des trajectoires duels des symptômes dépressifs concomitants et l'AEP ou son impact sur le développement socio-émotionnel des enfants. Cette étude a cherché à identifier les trajectoires d'AEP postpartum et de symptômes dépressifs chez des mères étant mères pour la première fois, en utilisant un modèle de croissance mixte. Les résultats ont fait état d'une classe de femmes avec un "risque moindre" (88,8%) qui faisaient preuve de niveaux peu élevés de dépression et de niveaux élevés d'AEP durant la période postpartum; un deuxième groupe de femmes, appelé "risque précoce" (6,3%) avec des niveaux élevés de dépression qui ont décru au fil du temps et avec des niveaux plus bas d'AEP qui restaient relativement stables; et un groupe de trajectoire finale estimé comme étant la classe de 'risque tardif' (4,9%) avec initialement des niveaux moindres de dépression et des niveaux élevés d'AEP qui ont respectivement augmenté et baissé de manière importante, au fil de cette période. Le trauma de la petite enfance, le stress de parentage et de mauvaises pratiques parentales étaient liés à l'appartenance à la classe à haut risque. Les mères des groupes à risque élevé ont fait état d'enfants avec un comportement plus agressif et défiant à l'âge de trois ans. Nous concluons en discutant les implications pour le développement d'interventions efficaces et sensibles.

Child-father attachment in early childhood and behavior problems: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analytic study examined the associations between child-father attachment in early childhood and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Based on 15 samples (N = 1,304 dyads), the association between child-father attachment insecurity and externalizing behaviors was significant and moderate in magnitude (r = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.27 or d = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.55). No moderators of this association were identified. Based on 12 samples (N = 1,073), the association between child-father attachment insecurity and internalizing behaviors was also significant, albeit smaller in magnitude (r = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.15; or d = 0.17, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.31). Between-study heterogeneity was insufficient to consider moderators. When compared to the effect sizes of prior meta-analyses on child-mother attachment and behavior problems, the quality of the attachment relationship with fathers yields a similar magnitude of associations to children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Results support the need to consider the role of the attachment network, which notably includes attachment relationships to both fathers and mothers, to understand how attachment relationships contribute to child development.

Examining effects of parent warmth and control on internalizing behavior clusters from age 8 to 12 in 12 cultural groups in nine countries.

BACKGROUND: Studies of U.S. and European samples demonstrate that parental warmth and behavioral control predict child internalizing behaviors and vice versa. However, these patterns have not been researched in other cultures. This study investigates associations between parent warmth and control and three child-reported internalizing behavior clusters to examine this question. METHODS: Data from 12 cultural groups in 9 countries were used to investigate prospective bidirectional associations between parental warmth and control, and three child-reported internalizing behavior types: withdrawn/depressed, anxious/depressed, and somatic problems. Multiple-group structural equation modeling was used to analyze associations in children followed from ages 8 to 12. RESULTS: Parent warmth and control effects were most pervasive on child-reported withdrawn/depressed problems, somewhat pervasive on anxious/depressed problems and least pervasive on somatic problems. Additionally, parental warmth, as opposed to control, was more consistently associated with child-reported internalizing problems across behavior clusters. Child internalizing behavior effects on parental warmth and control appeared ubiquitously across cultures, and behaviors, but were limited to ages 8-10. Most effects were pancultural, but culture-specific effects emerged at ages 9-10 involving the associations between parent warmth and withdrawn/depressed and somatic behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Effects of parent warmth and control appear stronger on some types of child-reported internalizing behaviors. Associations are especially strong with regard to parental warmth across cultures, and culture-specific effects may be accounted for by cultural normativeness of parent warmth and child-reported somatic symptoms. Child internalizing behavior effects on subsequent parenting are common across cultures.

Unfolding Relations among Mindful Parenting, Recurrent Conflict, and Adolescents' Externalizing and Internalizing Problems.

The current study examined unfolding relations among mothers' mindful parenting, parent-adolescent recurrent conflict, and adolescents' externalizing and internalizing problems. In a community sample of 117 families (31% black, Asian, American Indian, or Latino), parents and adolescents (52% female; average age = 12.13 years) were followed over 15 months. Parents answered questions about mindful parenting and recurrent conflict, and adolescents reported on their own externalizing and internalizing problems. Path analyses indicated that higher levels of mindful parenting were significantly related to lower levels of recurrent conflict 2-3 months later, controlling for previous levels of recurrent conflict. Moreover, lower levels of recurrent conflict were significantly related to lower levels of externalizing problems and internalizing problems 1 year later, controlling for previous levels of those problems. Subgroup analyses indicated that relations were comparable across subgroups defined by adolescent gender, race, parent marital status, and family financial strain. The effects of mindful parenting were robust even after accounting for other indicators of positive and supportive parenting, namely inductive reasoning and warmth in the parent-adolescent relationship. These findings highlight the potential of mindful parenting to improve family interactions and adolescent adjustment.

Uncovering Multidimensional Poverty Experiences in Shaping Children's Socioemotional Trajectories during the First 6 Years of Schooling.

The extant literature has attested to the importance of poverty on child well-being generally using a unidimensional approach. Researchers have yet to establish solid evidence on how multiple dimensions of poverty (e.g., depth, volatility, and spells of exposure) might be associated with children's socioemotional well-being during their early school years. Building upon Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory, this study used latent class analysis to identify poverty patterns by incorporating multiple dimensions of poverty and investigated the relationship between multidimensional poverty patterns and children's socioemotional trajectories from kindergarten through fifth grade. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999 (ECLS-K), a longitudinal dataset featuring a nationally representative cohort of children in the United States (N ≈ 20,090), the analysis identified seven poverty groups. Each group exhibited a unique poverty or economic pattern that incorporates the three poverty dimensions. Growth-curve results indicate that multidimensional poverty patterns were significantly associated with externalizing and internalizing behaviors both at kindergarten and over time by fifth grade. Children with the acutest form of economic deprivation-extreme poverty, volatile income, and multiple spells of poverty exposure-were reported to have the worst outcomes. The significant variations in children's socioemotional trajectories due to different poverty patterns highlight the importance of poverty reduction and prevention strategies corresponding to those patterns for optimal effect. This study suggests a focus not just on helping families exit poverty temporarily, but on improving their economic security as a way to nurture children's socioemotional well-being.

La bibliografía existente ha avalado la importancia de la pobreza en el bienestar de los niños, generalmente usando un enfoque unidimensional. Los investigadores aun tienen que demostrar con pruebas sólidas cómo las múltiples dimensiones de la pobreza (p. ej.: la profundidad, la volatilidad y los periodos de exposición) podrían estar asociadas con el bienestar socioemocional de los niños durante sus primeros años de escolarización. Basándose en la teoría bioecológica de sistemas de Bronfenbrenner, este estudio utilizó el análisis de clases latentes para identificar patrones de pobreza incorporando varias dimensiones de pobreza e investigó la relación entre los patrones multidimensionales de pobreza y las trayectorias socioemocionales de los niños desde el jardín de infantes hasta quinto grado. Utilizando el Estudio longitudinal de la primera infancia, promoción de jardín de infantes de 1998-99 (ECLS-K), un conjunto de datos longitudinales que presenta una cohorte de niños de los Estados Unidos representativa a nivel nacional (N ≈ 20,090), el análisis identificó siete grupos de pobreza. Cada grupo expuso un patrón económico o de pobreza único que incorporó las tres dimensiones de pobreza. Los resultados de la curva de crecimiento indican que los patrones multidimensionales de pobreza estuvieron asociados significativamente con conductas exteriorizadas e interiorizadas tanto en el jardín de infantes como en transcurso del tiempo hasta quinto grado. Se informó que los niños con la forma más aguda de privación económica-pobreza extrema, ingresos volátiles y varios periodos de exposición a la pobreza-tuvieron los peores resultados. Las variaciones significativas en las trayectorias socioemocionales de los niños debido a diferentes patrones de pobreza destacan la importancia de la reducción de la pobreza y de las estrategias de prevención correspondientes a esos patrones para lograr un efecto óptimo. Este estudio sugiere enfocarse no solo en ayudar a las familias a salir de la pobreza temporariamente, sino en mejorar su seguridad económica como forma de promover el bienestar socioemocional de los niños.