Histories of neighborhood socioeconomic status contribute to race differences in later-life cognition.

INTRODUCTION: Neighborhood characteristics are increasingly implicated in cognitive health disparities, but no research has investigated how the historical context of neighborhoods shapes these disparities. METHODS: Four hundred sixty-four Black (55%) and White older adults (Mage = 63.6) were drawn from the Michigan Cognitive Aging Project, a community-based, prospective study of older adults. Participants' addresses at baseline (2017-2020) were geocoded and linked to 2000-2017 measures of neighborhood socioeconomic status (NSES): disadvantage [NDis] and affluence [NAff]. Latent class growth analysis (LCGA) characterized 18 interpolated year trajectories of NSES across 1344 census tracts. Path analysis examined whether NSES trajectory classes mediated the association between race and a global cognition composite. RESULTS: LCGA identified three NDis and two NAff trajectory classes, which were associated with participant race. Only one NDis class was associated with cognition, and it mediated the association between the Black race and cognition. DISCUSSION: Disinvestment in neighborhoods may be particularly salient in race disparities in cognitive function. HIGHLIGHTS: Race is implicated in the likelihood of living in more disadvantaged neighborhoods. Historical trends in neighborhood disadvantage are associated with cognitive function in older adulthood. Identifying patterns of neighborhood change may inform neighborhood-level interventions.

Post-wildfire neighborhood change: evidence from the 2018 Camp Fire.

As the number of highly destructive wildfires grows, it is increasingly important to understand the long-term changes that occur to fire-affected places. Integrating approaches from social and biophysical science, we document two forms of neighborhood change following the 2018 Camp Fire in the United States, examining the more than 17,000 residential structures within the burn footprint. We found that mobile or motor homes, lower-value residences, and absentee owner residences had a significantly higher probability of being destroyed, providing evidence that housing stock filtering facilitated socially stratified patterns of physical damage. While the relationship between building value and destruction probability could be explained by measures of building density and distance to nearby roads, building type remained an independent predictor of structure loss that we could not fully explain by adding environmental covariates to our models. Using a geospatial machine learning technique, we then identified buildings that had been reconstructed within the burn footprint 20 months after the fire. We found that reconstructed buildings were more likely to have been owner-occupied prior to the fire and had higher average pre-fire property value, suggesting an emerging pattern of cost-burden gentrification. Our findings illustrate the importance of examining the built environment as a driver of socially uneven disaster impacts. Wildfire mitigation strategies are needed for mobile and motor home residents, renters, low-income residents, and dense neighborhoods.

If Residential Segregation Persists, What Explains Widespread Increases in Residential Diversity?

Recent studies have identified increasing residential diversity as a near-universal trend across the United States. At the same time, a wide range of scholarship notes the persistence of White flight and other mechanisms that reproduce residential segregation. In this article, we attempt to reconcile these findings by arguing that current trends toward increased residential diversity may sometimes mask population changes that are more consistent with racial turnover and eventual resegregation. Specifically, we show that increases in diversity occur nearly identically across neighborhoods where White populations remain stable or decline in the face of non-White population growth. Our findings demonstrate that, particularly in its early stages, racial turnover decouples diversity and integration, leading to increases in diversity without corresponding increases in residential integration. These results suggest that in many neighborhoods, diversity increases may be transitory phenomena driven primarily by a neighborhood's location in the racial turnover process. In the future, stalled or decreasing levels of diversity may become more common in these areas as segregation persists and the process of racial turnover continues.

While Some Things Change, Do Others Stay the Same? The Heterogeneity of Neighborhood Health Returns to Gentrification.

Gentrification is associated with decreases in neighborhood poverty and crime, increases in amenities and services, among other benefits-all identified as structural determinants of health. However, gentrification is also associated with population-level replacement of the existing community, or threats thereof. Combining census data from the ten largest MSAs in the U.S. with tract-level estimates from the CDC-PLACES Project from 2013-14 to 2017-18, we explore how the changing socioeconomic conditions in gentrifying neighborhoods correlate with changes in neighborhood health. We find significant differences between gentrifying and non-gentrifying neighborhoods in their associations with neighborhood health. The sociodemographic changes occurring in gentrifying neighborhoods generally correspond with simultaneous decreases in aggregate health risk behaviors and negative health outcomes. However, these changes are heterogeneous and complex. Whether and how neighborhood health changes alongside other components of neighborhood change depends on whether gentrification occurs in majority Black, Hispanic, or White neighborhoods. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that the changes accompanying gentrification extend to neighborhood health, but the direction of influence varies by neighborhood composition, type of sociodemographic change, specific health outcome, and spatial spillover. We discuss theoretical implications for future work addressing the mechanisms driving changes in neighborhood health, and potential approaches that differentiate policy responses.

Older Adults in Action: Using Action Research to Address Neighborhood Change.

Older adults face distinct challenges amidst changing neighborhood conditions, yet also bring distinct resources to aid their communities. After considering the literature related to well-being in older adulthood, the effects of neighborhood change on older adults, and older adults and social action, this paper explores the experiences of older adults in the Neighborhood Story Project. This action research project engages a group of neighbors to identify a set of research questions about their community, conduct place-based inquiry, and take action based on their learning. This study considers the degree to which the Neighborhood Story Project constitutes a macro therapeutic intervention. Drawing on observational and interview data with participants in seven Neighborhood Story Projects, this study explores the resources older adults brought to the project, what they personally gained from participating, and how their work benefited the broader community. The paper concludes with implications for macro-therapeutic interventions with older adults living through neighborhood change.

Changes in perceptions of neighborhood environment and Cardiometabolic outcomes in two predominantly African American neighborhoods.

BACKGROUND: Perceived neighborhood characteristics, including satisfaction with one's neighborhood as a place to live, are associated with lower obesity rates and more favorable cardiovascular risk factor profiles. Yet, few studies have evaluated whether changes in perceived neighborhood characteristics over time may be associated with cardiometabolic health indicators. METHODS: Changes in perception of one's neighborhood (2013-2016) were determined from a cohort of residents who lived in one of two low-income urban neighborhoods. Changes were categorized into the following: improvement vs. no change or worsening over the three-year time-period. Multivariable linear regression was used to measure the association between perceived improvement in each of the neighborhood characteristics with cardiometabolic outcomes (BMI, SBP, DBP, HbA1c, HDL-c) that were assessed in 2016, and compared with those who perceived no change or worsening of neighborhood characteristics. Models were adjusted for age, sex, income, education, marital status, physical function, neighborhood, and years spent in neighborhood. To examine potential sex differences, follow-up models were conducted and stratified by sex. RESULTS: Among the 622 individuals who remained in the same neighborhood during the time period, 93% were African American, 80% were female, and the mean age was 58 years. In covariate-adjusted models, those who perceived improvement in their neighborhood safety over the time period had a significantly higher BMI (kg/m2) than those who perceived no improvement or worsening (ß = 1.5, p = 0.0162); however, perceived improvement in safety was also significantly associated with lower SBP (mmHg) (ß = - 3.8, p = 0.0361). When results were stratified by sex, the relationship between improved perceived neighborhood safety and BMI was only evident in females. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that perceived neighborhood characteristics may impact cardiometabolic outcomes (BMI, SBP), but through differing pathways. This highlights the complexity of the associations between neighborhood characteristics and underscores the need for more longitudinal studies to confirm the associations with cardiometabolic health in African American populations.

Remaking White Residential Segregation: Metropolitan Diversity and Neighborhood Change in the United States.

Between 1990 and 2010, the white population share in US metropolitan areas fell from 73.5 percent to 60.3 percent. This paper explores how this decline affected the number and composition of white census tracts (tracts in which non-Latino whites constitute the largest group). In 1990, white tracts comprised 82 percent of all metropolitan tracts. By 2010, this percentage had fallen to 70 percent, paralleling the percentage point drop in white population share. This loss was concentrated among the most segregated white tracts - those with low diversity. White tracts that were moderately diverse actually doubled in number between 1990 and 2010 although this increase was insufficient to cancel the loss of low diversity white tracts. We model the effects of metropolitan characteristics on white-tract change by metropolitan area. Greater metropolitan-scale diversity increases the probability that low-diversity white tracts transition to moderate-diversity white. Moderately diverse white tracts, however, become more stable with increased diversity. A large metropolitan percentage of blacks or the foreign born, however, reverses this stabilizing effect, increasing the probability that moderately diverse white tracts transition to non-white tracts (i.e. where a non-white group is the largest group). Thus the level and composition of metropolitan diversity matters for the trajectory of moderately diverse white tracts. Overall, the formation of new white tracts, possibly the result of gentrification, coupled with the emergence of moderately diverse white tracts and an increasing share of whites living in such residential environments, suggests a reconfiguration rather than a dissolving of white dominated neighborhood space in response to increased diversity in surrounding metropolitan contexts.

Racial Differences in Neighborhood Attainment: The Contributions of Interneighborhood Migration and In Situ Change.

Recent research shows that as they age, blacks experience less improvement than whites in the socioeconomic status of their residential neighborhoods. Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and U.S. decennial censuses, we assess the relative contribution of residential mobility and in situ neighborhood change (i.e., change surrounding nonmobile neighborhood residents) to the black-white difference in changes in neighborhood socioeconomic status and racial composition. Results from decomposition analyses show that the racial difference in in situ neighborhood change explains virtually all the black-white difference in neighborhood socioeconomic status change. In contrast, racial differences in residential mobility explain the bulk of the black-white difference in neighborhood racial compositional change. Among blacks and whites initially residing in low-income and predominantly minority neighborhoods, whites experience a much greater increase than blacks in the socioeconomic status of their neighborhoods and the percentage of their neighbors who are non-Hispanic white. These differences are driven primarily by racial differences in the economic and racial composition of local (intracounty) movers' destination neighborhoods and secondarily by black-white differences in the likelihood of moving long distances.

Assessing the benefits of a rising tide: Educational attainment and increases in neighborhood socioeconomic advantage.

An emerging approach to studying associations between neighborhood contexts and educational outcomes is to estimate the outcomes of adolescents growing up in neighborhoods that are experiencing economic growth in comparison to peers that reside in economically stable or declining communities. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), I examine the association between education attainment and changes in socioeconomic advantage in urban neighborhoods between 1990 and 2000. I find that residing in a neighborhood that experiences economic improvements has a positive association with educational attainment for urban adolescents. Furthermore, race-based analyses suggest consistently positive associations for all race subgroups, lending support to protective models of neighborhood effects that argue high neighborhood SES supports positive outcomes for adolescents residing in these contexts.

Constructing a Time-Invariant Measure of the Socio-economic Status of U.S. Census Tracts.

Contextual research on time and place requires a consistent measurement instrument for neighborhood conditions in order to make unbiased inferences about neighborhood change. We develop such a time-invariant measure of neighborhood socio-economic status (NSES) using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses fit to census data at the tract level from the 1990 and 2000 U.S. Censuses and the 2008-2012 American Community Survey. A single factor model fit the data well at all three time periods, and factor loadings--but not indicator intercepts--could be constrained to equality over time without decrement to fit. After addressing remaining longitudinal measurement bias, we found that NSES increased from 1990 to 2000, and then--consistent with the timing of the "Great Recession"--declined in 2008-2012 to a level approaching that of 1990. Our approach for evaluating and adjusting for time-invariance is not only instructive for studies of NSES but also more generally for longitudinal studies in which the variable of interest is a latent construct.

Gentrification and Residential Mobility in Philadelphia.

Gentrification has provoked considerable controversy surrounding its effects on residential displacement. Using a unique individual-level, longitudinal data set, this study examines mobility rates and residential destinations of residents in gentrifying neighborhoods during the recent housing boom and bust in Philadelphia for various strata of residents and different types of gentrification. We find that vulnerable residents, those with low credit scores and without mortgages, are generally no more likely to move from gentrifying neighborhoods compared with their counterparts in nongentrifying neighborhoods. When they do move, however, they are more likely to move to lower-income neighborhoods. Residents in gentrifying neighborhoods at the aggregate level have slightly higher mobility rates, but these rates are largely driven by more advantaged residents. These findings shed new light on the heterogeneity in mobility patterns across residents in gentrifying neighborhoods and suggest that researchers should focus more attention on the quality of residential moves and nonmoves for less advantaged residents, rather than mobility rates alone.

Neighborhood Reputation and Resident Sentiment in the Wake of the Las Vegas Foreclosure Crisis.

This study examines how two major components of a neighborhood's reputation-perceived disorder and collective efficacy-shape individuals' sentiments toward their neighborhoods during the foreclosure crisis triggered by the Great Recession. Of central interest are whether neighborhood reputations are durable in the face of a crisis (neighborhood resiliency hypothesis) or whether neighborhood reputations wane during times of duress (foreclosure crisis hypothesis). Geo-coded individual-level data from the Las Vegas Metropolitan Area Social Survey merged with data on census tract foreclosure rates are used to address this question. The results provide qualified support for both perspectives. In support of the neighborhood resiliency hypothesis, collective efficacy is positively associated with how residents feel about the quality of their neighborhoods, and this relationship is unaltered by foreclosure rates. In support of the foreclosure crisis hypothesis, foreclosure rates mediate the effects of neighborhood disorder on resident sentiment. The implications of these findings for community resiliency are discussed.

Gentrification, perceptions of neighborhood change, and mental health in Montréal, Québec.

While census-defined measures of gentrification are often used in research on gentrification and health, surveys can be used to better understand how residents perceive neighborhood change, and the implications for mental health. Whether or not gentrification affects mental health may depend on the extent to which an individual perceives changes in their neighborhood. Using health and map-based survey data, collected from 2020 to 2021, from the Interventions, Research, and Action in Cities Team, we examined links between perceptions of neighborhood change, census-defined neighborhood gentrification at participant residential addresses, and mental health among 505 adults living in Montréal. After adjusting for age, gender, race, education, and duration at current residence, greater perceived affordability and more positive feelings about neighborhood changes were associated with better mental health, as measured by the mental health component of the short-form health survey. Residents who perceived more change to the social environment had lower mental health scores, after adjusting individual covariates. Census-defined gentrification was not significantly associated with mental health, and perceptions of neighborhood change did not significantly modify the effect of gentrification on mental health. Utilizing survey tools can help researchers understand the role that perceptions of neighborhood change play in the understanding how neighborhood change impacts mental health.

The Association of Neighborhood Changes with Health-Related Quality of Life in the Women's Health Initiative.

Longitudinal studies can help us understand the effects of long-term neighborhood changes, as these can capture individual self-appraisal of current and future circumstances. We analyzed the association between neighborhood changes and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) outcomes among older women from the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study. We used a subset (n = 49,254) of the longitudinal WHI dataset of female participants, aged 50-79 at baseline, recruited from 40 clinical centers across the U.S. beginning in 1993. Two HRQoL outcomes were explored: self-rated quality of life (SRQoL), and physical functioning-related quality of life (PFQoL). We used U.S. census tract-level changes in median household income between the 2000 census and 2007-2011 American Community Survey to classify neighborhoods as "upgrading," "declining," or "stable." Multi-level models were used to identify significant associations between neighborhood change and HRQoL outcomes over time. Compared to participants residing in upgrading neighborhoods, participants in stable and declining neighborhoods reported significantly lower PFQoL. A significant interaction was observed with income such that the effect of neighborhood change was greater at lower levels of income.

The Dual Role of Race and Immigration Among Ascending Neighborhoods in U.S. Metropolitan Areas.

The racial/ethnic and socioeconomic diversity of immigrants to the United States has grown since the 1990s, along with growing neighborhood socioeconomic inequality. Few studies explain how race/ethnicity and immigration interact to influence neighborhoods' socioeconomic ascent (increases in residents' household income, rents, property values, educational and occupational attainment). We draw on two decades of Census microdata, 1990-2010, to create synthetic cohorts that allowed us to measure the interactions between race/ethnicity and immigration on neighborhood ascent. We find that Black immigrants contributed the most to socioeconomic ascent in predominantly Black neighborhoods, while non-Hispanic newcomers-both immigrant and U.S.-born-contribute the most to predominantly Hispanic ascendant neighborhoods. All combinations of White/nonwhite and immigrant/U.S.-born contribute to the ascent of White neighborhoods with White immigrant newcomers to the neighborhood having the highest SES. The presence of White residents increases in nonwhite ascendant neighborhoods, especially neighborhoods in new immigrant destinations. The foreign-born presence grew more in all non-ascendant neighborhoods relative to ascendant neighborhoods of all types. Our analysis shows that immigration influences neighborhood socioeconomic ascent differently across racial/ethnic groups and in neighborhoods with differing initial racial composition. Our findings underscore the need to account for both race/ethnicity and immigration in order to explain the population processes underlying neighborhood change.

Whitest City in America: A Smaller Black Community's Experience of Gentrification, Displacement, and Aging in Place.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The influx of people with higher socioeconomic status into large Black communities is well documented; less is known regarding smaller, aging Black communities. Older Black adults in Portland, Oregon, among America's fastest gentrifying cities with the smallest metropolitan Black population, discussed barriers to healthy aging. Perspectives centered on the experience of gentrification, displacement, and its impact on social microsystems, place security, and aging in place. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: One-time focus groups engaged 41 Black adults aged at least 45. A demographic survey included residence area/duration. Discussions were thematically coded. Ecological Systems Theory guided interpretation. RESULTS: The majority of participants resided within gentrifying historically Black neighborhoods (89.2%), were aged at least 65 (54.6%), and lived in their neighborhood for at least 21 years (24.3%). Emergent discussion themes were rise and fall of Black ownership, displacement, race-related stress, and financial burden. Gentrification contributed to the dismantling of Black property ownership curated over generations, increased financial burden, and threatened place security. Physical displacement strained social networks, diminishing intergenerational neighborhood ties that supported aging in place. Cultural and physical displacement weakened the sense of social cohesion and belonging and induced race-related stressful interactions with new residents within original and relocation neighborhoods. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Gentrification in the Pacific Northwest echoes national trends, uprooting critical close-proximity social networks and deteriorating motivation to engage in neighborhood-based social activity. Smaller, aging Black communities may be particularly vulnerable to these effects, which critically affect aging in place. Data inform researchers and policymakers to better understand how gentrification affects smaller, aging Black communities.

Development of an instrument to measure perceived gentrification for health research: Perceptions about changes in environments and residents (PACER).

Despite a myriad of potential pathways linking neighborhood change and gentrification to health, existing quantitative measures failed to capture individual-level, self-reported perceptions of these processes. We developed the Perceptions About Change in Environment and Residents (PACER) survey to measure the gentrification-related neighborhood change experienced by individuals relevant to health. We employed a multi-stage process to develop PACER including a scoping review, question refinement, content validity, and cognitive interviews. Content validity and cognitive interviews were assessed within the National Neighborhood Indicators Partnership (NNIP) and for residents of different tenure in both gentrifying and non-gentrifying neighborhoods to ensure PACER considers the complex nature of neighborhood change for different people within different urban contexts. We piloted the instrument to a sample from the resident panel BeHeardPhilly to assess acceptability and data quality. Finally, we assessed internal consistency, dimensionality, and criterion-related validity using Principal Components Analysis (PCA), descriptive statistics, and correlation coefficients. Testing showed good internal consistency for PACER questions, as well as for each of four resulting factors (Feelings, Built Environment, Social Environment, and Affordability). Correlations between factors and other context measures demonstrated strong criterion-related validity. PACER offers an unprecedented tool for measuring and understanding resident perceptions about gentrification-related neighborhood change relevant to health. Rigorously tested and tailored for health, PACER holds utility for application across different settings to examine changes from events that may impact and shift neighborhoods.

Association of change in the neighborhood obesogenic environment with colorectal cancer risk: The Multiethnic Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Neighborhood environment has been associated with health behaviors. Despite the evidence of the influence of neighborhood social and physical factors on cancer risk, no research has evaluated whether changes in the neighborhood obesogenic environment, either by physical moves to different neighborhoods or experiencing neighborhood redevelopment or neglect, affect cancer risk. METHODS: The association of change in neighborhood environment attributes (socioeconomic status, population density, restaurant and retail food environments, numbers of recreational facilities and businesses, commute patterns, traffic density, and street connectivity) with colorectal cancer (CRC) risk was examined among 95,472 Los Angeles, CA, Multiethnic Cohort participants, including 2295 invasive CRC cases diagnosed between 1993 and 2010 using Cox proportional hazards regression, adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, other risk factors including BMI and physical activity, and baseline levels of neighborhood attributes. Stratified analyses were conducted by racial/ethnic group and moving status. RESULTS: 40% of participants moved (changed physical residence) during follow-up. Across all races/ethnicities, upward change in population density was statistically significantly associated with higher CRC risk among male and female non-movers (HR: 1.35 and 1.41, respectively). The same association was also observed separately among female African American and Japanese American non-movers, male Latino non-movers, female African American and male White movers. Downward change in population density was significantly related to higher CRC risk among female non-movers (HR: 1.33). Downward change in traffic density was associated with lower CRC risk among male non-movers but with higher CRC risk among female movers (HR: 0.66 and 1.43, respectively). Downward changes in street connectivity or the number of recreational facilities were associated with higher CRC risk (HR: 1.34 and 1.54, respectively). Upward change in the number of recreational facilities was associated with lower CRC risk among female non-movers (HR: 0.70). Changes in the other neighborhood attributes did not exhibit significant associations with CRC risk within more than one racial/ethnic group. CONCLUSION: Changes over time in neighborhood attributes have an effect on the risk of colorectal cancer, which is separate from the baseline levels of the same attributes and individual-level risk factors, and differs between sexes, movers and non-movers and across racial/ethnic groups.

From Census Tracts to Local Environments: An Egocentric Approach to Neighborhood Racial Change.

Most quantitative studies of neighborhood racial change rely on census tracts as the unit of analysis. However, tracts are insensitive to variation in the geographic scale of the phenomenon under investigation and to proximity among a focal tract's residents and those in nearby territory. Tracts may also align poorly with residents' perceptions of their own neighborhood and with the spatial reach of their daily activities. To address these limitations, we propose that changes in racial structure (i.e., in overall diversity and group-specific proportions) be examined within multiple egocentric neighborhoods, a series of nested local environments surrounding each individual that approximate meaningful domains of experience. Our egocentric approach applies GIS procedures to census block data, using race-specific population densities to redistribute block counts of whites, blacks, Hispanics, and Asians across 50-meter by 50-meter cells. For each cell, we then compute the proximity-adjusted racial composition of four different-sized local environments based on the weighted average racial group counts in adjacent cells. The value of this approach is illustrated with 1990-2000 data from a previous study of 40 large metropolitan areas. We document exposure to increasing neighborhood racial diversity during the decade, although the magnitude of this increase in diversity-and of shifts in the particular races to which one is exposed-differs by local environment size and racial group membership. Changes in diversity exposure at the neighborhood level also depend on how diverse the metro area as a whole has become.

Neighborhood social and economic change and retail food environment change in Madrid (Spain): The heart healthy hoods study.

This study explores the association between neighborhood social and economic change from 2009 to 2013 and changes in the retail food environment from 2013 to 2017 in Madrid (Spain). We classified neighborhoods into four types: decreasing SES, new housing/gentrifying, increasing SES, and aging (population and housing). Food store data was obtained from a retail spaces census and classified as supermarket, specialized small store, or fruit and vegetable store. Compared to aging areas, new housing/gentrifying and areas with increasing SES had a higher baseline presence and proportion of supermarkets and a lower proportion of specialized stores and fruit and vegetable stores. Areas with decreasing SES had an initially higher presence and proportion of fruit and vegetable stores but showed a declining trend in both presence and proportion of fruit and vegetable stores.