["There are no worthy life opportunities from a human, professional or scientific viewpoint": expelled neurologists outside the centers of German-speaking neuroscience]. / "Weder menschlich noch beruflich, noch wissenschaftlich würdige Lebensmöglichkeiten": vertriebene Neurologen außerhalb der Zentren der deutschsprachigen Neurowissenschaft.

The persecution and expulsion of German-speaking neurologists were not limited to research centers, such as Berlin, Vienna, Frankfurt am Main and Hamburg. The exclusion from science, teaching and clinical care also occurred at other (university) sites. The different aspects and implementation of the exclusion are presented here exemplified by 10 physicians involved in neuroscience. These ranged from forced internal emigration (Georg Stertz/Kiel), racially motivated removal from office (Max Isserlin and Karl Neubürger/both Munich, Ernst Grünthal/Würzburg, Gabriel Steiner/Heidelberg, Rudolf Altschul and Francis Schiller/both Prague) to publicly staged denunciation and humiliation (Otto Löwenstein/Bonn). Furthermore, without being directly persecuted themselves, individual physicians reacted to the poisoned political and academic climate in that they either sooner or later left their homeland (Eduard Heinrich Krapf/Cologne, Hartwig Kuhlenbeck/Jena). The results and conclusions summarized in this article for university clinics and institutes represent only a narrow section of the neurological scene in 1933-1939; however, they emphasize how necessary an expansion of the historical research perspective is on the fate of neurologists at communal hospitals, in field practices and other professional areas.

[Persecution, expulsion and extermination of German-speaking neurologists during the NS era: attempt at an assessment]. / Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung deutschsprachiger Neurologinnen und Neurologen während der NS-Zeit: Versuch einer Bewertung.

Some 90 years after the beginning of the Nazi regime, the German Neurological Society (DGN) commissioned an investigation into the extent to which persecution, expulsion and extermination during the "Third Reich" also affected neurologists. In total, the biographies of 61 mostly Jewish physicians and scientists, of whom more than 70% were members of the neurological association of the time, could be analyzed. Most of them emigrated, a few remained in Germany or Austria despite persecution, and nine died in the Holocaust or by suicide. The racistically motivated expulsion affected all age groups, especially those who were 30-60 years old in "middle" positions. In close connection with Nazi legislation, three waves of emigration can be distinguished (1933-1934, 1935-1937, 1938-1939) and the clearly preferred destination country was the USA (64.7%). Younger age, knowledge of a universal language, reliable family and academic connections as well as internationally recognized publications, could make it easier to start a career in the country of exile. It was not uncommon for those who were involved in neurological fields before emigration to turn to basic science or psychiatry afterwards. The general "brain-drain"/"brain gain" hypothesis must be expanded by analyses on the biographical microlevel in order to illustrate the difficulties emigrants encountered when trying to start a new career and to publicize a sometimes unsuccessful acculturation. Not a single neurologist returned to Germany and, as far as can be assessed, any compensation, if at all was low. The critical assessment of the racistically motivated persecution between 1933 and 1945 can today be an occasion for the DGN and its members to reflect on collegiality as a value as well as to become more aware of structurally related discrimination and injustice and to counteract it in a timely manner.

The History of Amnesia-a Review.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review traces amnesia's history from its earliest eighteenth century classification as a medical disorder to the present. Sophisticated depictions in the nineteenth century literature containing elaborate compilations of causal factors, including neurologic, consider pathogenesis, course, duration, durability, and temporal features. RECENT FINDINGS: Severe amnesia, especially anterograde involving new learning, found archetypal expression in the twentieth century, in the case of H.M. The "pure" amnesia confirmed an independent memory disorder distinct from other cognitive disturbances, with functional dissociations illustrating nuanced manifestations and highlighting the role of some discovered structural correlates (e.g., hippocampal and associated MTL regions). Moreover, neural networks and interconnections have also notably been implicated. Although concepts of illness change across cultures and centuries, portrayal of amnesia remained consistent as it spread internationally. Amnesia's groundbreaking original nosology laid a foundation for contemporary paradigms of the multifactorial nature, specificity, and complexity of a poignantly thought-provoking disorder.

A Tribute to James Parkinson.

Exactly 200 years ago, the London surgeon-apothecary James Parkinson (1755-1824) published a 66-page-long booklet entitled An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, which contains the first clear clinical description of the shaking palsy or paralysis agitans, which we now refer to as Parkinson's disease. However, the value of this essay was not fully recognized during Parkinson's lifetime, which spanned the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic Wars. James Parkinson was one of the most singular figures of his time and place. He was successively or concomitantly a virulent political activist, a popular medical writer, a scholarly medical contributor, a highly appreciated parish doctor, a prominent amateur chemist, a devoted madhouse doctor, and a renowned paleontologist. It is that branch of geology that brought Parkinson fame during his lifetime. He was an insatiable collector of fossils, minerals, and shells that came to form the core of the museum that he set out at his home in Shoreditch, England. These specimens are beautifully illustrated in his Organic Remains of a Former World (1804-1811), a three-volume treatise that rapidly became a standard paleontology textbook. Parkinson was a founding member of the Geological Society of London, and in recognition of his contribution to the nascent field of paleontology his name was given to many fossils, particularly ammonites (e.g. Nautilus parkinsoni). Hence, we owe much to Mr. Parkinson, the Paleontologist, as he used to be referred to after his death, for such a vast and multifaceted contribution to natural science and medicine.

The "Big-Bang" for modern glial biology: Translation and comments on Pío del Río-Hortega 1919 series of papers on microglia.

The word "glia" was coined in the mid-19th century and defined as "the nerve glue". For decades, it was assumed to be a uniform matrix, until cell theorists raised the "neuron doctrine" which stipulated that nervous tissue was composed of individual cells. The term "astrocytes" was introduced in the late 19th century as a synonym for glial cells, but it was Santiago Ramón y Cajal who defined a "third element" distinct from glial cells (astrocytes) and neurons. It was not until 1919 when Pío del Río-Hortega, an alumnus of the Cajal School, introduced the modern terms we use today, and thoroughly described both "oligodendrocytes" and "microglia" to clearly distinguish them from astrocytes. In a series of four papers published that year in Spanish, Río-Hortega described the distribution and morphological phenotype of microglia. He also noted that these cells were the origin of the rod cells described earlier in pathologic tissue, and recognized that resting microglia transformed into an ameboid phenotype in different types of brain diseases and pathologies. He also noted the mesodermal origin of these cells and recognized their phagocytic capacity. We here provide the first English translation of these landmark series of papers, which paved the way for modern glial research. To heighten the value and accessibility of these classic papers and their original figures, an introduction to this critical period of neuroscience is provided, along with unpublished photographs. By adding comments to the translated text, we provide sufficient context so that contemporary scientists may fully appreciate it. GLIA 2016;64:1801-1840.

Franciscus Sylvius on Clinical Teaching, Iatrochemistry and Brain Anatomy.

Born in Hanau, Germany, in 1614, Franciscus (Dele Boë) Sylvius received his medical doctor diploma from Basel University in 1637 and became Professor of Practical Medicine at Leiden University in 1658. One of the founders of medical biochemistry, Sylvius was also an outstanding anatomopathologist, with contributions ranging from the first description of the pulmonary tubercles to that of the lateral fissure of the brain. Thanks to Sylvius, a gifted teacher and one of the greatest physicians of his time, Leiden became a major European medical training center. He died in 1772 after having served as Rector Magnificus at Leiden University.

Art, Intuition, and Identity in Ramón y Cajal.

In the history of neuroscience, Cajal stands tall. Many figures in the late 19th and early 20th centuries made major contributions to neuroscience-Sherrington, Ferrier, Jackson, Holmes, Adrian, and Békésy, to name a few. But in the public mind, Cajal is unique. His application of the Golgi method, with an array of histologic stains, unlocked a wealth of new knowledge on the structure and function of the brain. Here we argue that Cajal's success should not only be attributed to the importance of his scientific contributions but also to the artistic visual language that he created and to his pioneering self-branding, which exploited methods of the artist, including classical drawing and the new invention of photography. We argue that Cajal created his distinctive visual language and self-branding strategy by interweaving an ostensibly objective research product with an intimately subjective narrative about the brain and himself. His approach is evident in the use of photography, notably self-portraits, which furthered broad engagement initially inspired by his scientific drawings. Through his visual language, Cajal made an impact in art and culture far beyond the bounds of science, which has sustained his scientific legacy.

A teoria neuronal de Santiago Ramón y Cajal / The neuron theory of Santiago Ramón y Caja

A teoria neuronal prerroga a existência da unidade básica do sistema nervoso, o neurônio. A teoria neuronal foi proposta e formulada nas últimas décadas do século XIX. Ela é comumente associada ao nome de Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934), que a formulou em oposição à proposta de que o tecido nervoso é constituído por redes contínuas formadas por células nervosas. Os trabalhos de Ramón y Cajal são, portanto, considerados ponto de inflexão nas pesquisas em Neurociência. Este trabalho objetiva investigar a constituição da teoria neuronal de acordo com a formação do conceito de neurônio. A formação do conceito de neurônio está diretamente ligada ao conceito de plasticidade. Como parte da pesquisa, serão investigados os principais trabalhos de um dos mais fervorosos defensores do reticularismo, o italiano Camillo Golgi (1843-1926). Em linhas gerais, o trabalho pretende um exame da constituição da teoria neuronal a partir da formação do conceito de neurônio e do papel que o conceito de plasticidade teve na formulação do conceito de neurônio.(AU)

The neuron theory prerogatives the existence of the basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron. The neuron theory was proposed and formulated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. It is commonly associated with the name of Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934), who formulated it in contradiction to the proposal that nervous tissue consists of seamless networks formed by nerve cells. Ramón y Cajals works are, therefore, considered the turning point in neuroscience research. This work aims to investigate the formation of neuronal theory according to the neurons concept. The formation of the neuron concept is directly linked to the plasticity concept. As part of the research, it will be studied the major works of one of the most fervent advocates of reticular theory, the Italian scientist, Camillo Golgi (1843-1926). In general, this study aims to examine the formation of neuronal theory from the formation of the neuron concept and the role that the plasticity concept had in formulating the neuron concept.(AU)