The ecology of human-caused mortality for a protected large carnivore.

Mitigating human-caused mortality for large carnivores is a pressing global challenge for wildlife conservation. However, mortality is almost exclusively studied at local (within-population) scales creating a mismatch between our understanding of risk and the spatial extent most relevant to conservation and management of wide-ranging species. Here, we quantified mortality for 590 radio-collared mountain lions statewide across their distribution in California to identify drivers of human-caused mortality and investigate whether human-caused mortality is additive or compensatory. Human-caused mortality, primarily from conflict management and vehicles, exceeded natural mortality despite mountain lions being protected from hunting. Our data indicate that human-caused mortality is additive to natural mortality as population-level survival decreased as a function of increasing human-caused mortality and natural mortality did not decrease with increased human-caused mortality. Mortality risk increased for mountain lions closer to rural development and decreased in areas with higher proportions of citizens voting to support environmental initiatives. Thus, the presence of human infrastructure and variation in the mindset of humans sharing landscapes with mountain lions appear to be primary drivers of risk. We show that human-caused mortality can reduce population-level survival of large carnivores across large spatial scales, even when they are protected from hunting.

Neotropical mammal responses to megafires in the Brazilian Pantanal.

The increasing frequency and severity of human-caused fires likely have deleterious effects on species distribution and persistence. In 2020, megafires in the Brazilian Pantanal burned 43% of the biome's unburned area and resulted in mass mortality of wildlife. We investigated changes in habitat use or occupancy for an assemblage of eight mammal species in Serra do Amolar, Brazil, following the 2020 fires using a pre- and post-fire camera trap dataset. Additionally, we estimated the density for two naturally marked species, jaguars Panthera onca and ocelots Leopardus pardalis. Of the eight species, six (ocelots, collared peccaries Dicotyles tajacu, giant armadillos Priodontes maximus, Azara's agouti Dasyprocta azarae, red brocket deer Mazama americana, and tapirs Tapirus terrestris) had declining occupancy following fires, and one had stable habitat use (pumas Puma concolor). Giant armadillo experienced the most precipitous decline in occupancy from 0.431 ± 0.171 to 0.077 ± 0.044 after the fires. Jaguars were the only species with increasing habitat use, from 0.393 ± 0.127 to 0.753 ± 0.085. Jaguar density remained stable across years (2.8 ± 1.3, 3.7 ± 1.3, 2.6 ± 0.85/100 km2), while ocelot density increased from 13.9 ± 3.2 to 16.1 ± 5.2/100 km2. However, the low number of both jaguars and ocelots recaptured after the fire period suggests that immigration may have sustained the population. Our results indicate that the megafires will have significant consequences for species occupancy and fitness in fire-affected areas. The scale of megafires may inhibit successful recolonization, thus wider studies are needed to investigate population trends.

A crescente frequência e gravidade dos incêndios causados pelo homem provavelmente terão efeitos deletérios na distribuição e persistência das espécies. Em 2020, mega incêndios no Pantanal brasileiro queimaram 43% do bioma e resultaram na mortalidade em massa da vida selvagem. Nós investigamos mudanças no uso ou ocupação do habitat para uma comunidade de oito espécies de mamíferos na Serra do Amolar, Brasil, após os incêndios de 2020, usando um conjunto de dados de armadilhas fotográficas instaladas no período pré e pós­fogo. Além disso, estimamos a densidade de duas espécies naturalmente marcadas, a onça­pintada Panthera onca e a jaguatirica Leopardus pardalis. Das oito espécies, seis (a jaguatirica, o cateto Dicotyles tajacu, o tatu­canastra Priodontes maximus, a cutia Dasyprocta azarae, o veado mateiro Mazama americana e a anta Tapirus terrestris) tiveram ocupação reduzida após os incêndios, e uma teve uso de habitat estável (a onça­parda, Puma concolor). O tatu­canastra apresentou o declínio mais acentuado na ocupação após os incêndios de 0,431 ± 0,171 para 0,077 ± 0,044. A onça­pintada foi a única espécie com uso crescente de habitat, de 0,393 ± 0,127 para 0,753 ± 0,085. A densidade da onça­pintada permaneceu estável ao longo dos anos (2,8 ± 1,3, 3,7 ± 1,3, 2,6 ± 0,85/100 km2), enquanto a densidade da jaguatirica aumentou de 13,9 ± 3,2 para 16,1 ± 5,2/100 km2. No entanto, o baixo número de onças­pintadas e jaguatiricas recapturadas após o período do fogo sugere que a imigração pode ter sustentado as populações. Nossos resultados indicam que os mega incêndios terão consequências significativas para a ocupação e resiliência das espécies nas áreas afetadas pelo fogo. A escala dos mega incêndios pode inibir uma recolonização bem­sucedida, pelo que são necessários estudos mais amplos para investigar as tendências populacionais.

White-tailed deer population dynamics in a multipredator landscape shaped by humans.

Large terrestrial mammals increasingly rely on human-modified landscapes as anthropogenic footprints expand. Land management activities such as timber harvest, agriculture, and roads can influence prey population dynamics by altering forage resources and predation risk via changes in habitat, but these effects are not well understood in regions with diverse and changing predator guilds. In northeastern Washington state, USA, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are vulnerable to multiple carnivores, including recently returned gray wolves (Canis lupus), within a highly human-modified landscape. To understand the factors governing predator-prey dynamics in a human context, we radio-collared 280 white-tailed deer, 33 bobcats (Lynx rufus), 50 cougars (Puma concolor), 28 coyotes (C. latrans), and 14 wolves between 2016 and 2021. We first estimated deer vital rates and used a stage-structured matrix model to estimate their population growth rate. During the study, we observed a stable to declining deer population (lambda = 0.97, 95% confidence interval: 0.88, 1.05), with 74% of Monte Carlo simulations indicating population decrease and 26% of simulations indicating population increase. We then fit Cox proportional hazard models to evaluate how predator exposure, use of human-modified landscapes, and winter severity influenced deer survival and used these relationships to evaluate impacts on overall population growth. We found that the population growth rate was dually influenced by a negative direct effect of apex predators and a positive effect of timber harvest and agricultural areas. Cougars had a stronger effect on deer population dynamics than wolves, and mesopredators had little influence on the deer population growth rate. Areas of recent timber harvest had 55% more forage biomass than older forests, but horizontal visibility did not differ, suggesting that timber harvest did not influence predation risk. Although proximity to roads did not affect the overall population growth rate, vehicle collisions caused a substantial proportion of deer mortalities, and reducing these collisions could be a win-win for deer and humans. The influence of apex predators and forage indicates a dual limitation by top-down and bottom-up factors in this highly human-modified system, suggesting that a reduction in apex predators would intensify density-dependent regulation of the deer population owing to limited forage availability.

Mesocarnivores vary in their spatiotemporal avoidance strategies at communications hubs of an apex carnivore.

Mesocarnivores face interspecific competition and risk intraguild predation when sharing resources with apex carnivores. Within a landscape, carnivores across trophic levels may use the same communication hubs, which provide a mix of risks (injury/death) and rewards (gaining information) for subordinate species. We predicted that mesocarnivores would employ different strategies to avoid apex carnivores at shared communication hubs, depending on their trophic position. To test our prediction, we examined how different subordinate carnivore species in the Santa Cruz Mountains of California, USA, manage spatial overlap with pumas (Puma concolor), both at communication hubs and across a landscape-level camera trap array. We estimated species-specific occurrence, visitation rates, temporal overlap, and Avoidance-Attraction Ratios from camera traps and tested for differences between the two types of sites. We found that mesocarnivores generally avoided pumas at communication hubs, and this became more pronounced when pumas scent-marked during their most recent visit. Coyotes (Canis latrans), the pumas' closest subordinate competitor in our system, exhibited the strongest avoidance at communication hubs. Gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) avoided pumas the least, which may suggest possible benefits from pumas suppressing coyotes. Overall, mesocarnivores exhibited various spatiotemporal avoidance strategies at communication hubs rather than outright avoidance, likely because they benefit from information gained while 'eavesdropping' on puma activity. Variability in avoidance strategies may be due to differential predation risks, as apex carnivores often interact more aggressively with their closest competitors. Combined, our results show how apex carnivores trigger complex species interactions across the entire carnivore guild and how trophic position determines behavioral responses and subsequent space use of subordinate mesocarnivores across the landscape.

Feline Leukemia Virus Frequently Spills Over from Domestic Cats to North American Pumas.

Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a gammaretrovirus with horizontally transmitted and endogenous forms. Domestic cats are the primary reservoir species, but FeLV outbreaks in endangered Florida panthers and Iberian lynxes have resulted in mortalities. To assess prevalence and interspecific/intraspecific transmission, we conducted an extensive survey and phylogenetic analysis of FeLV infection in free-ranging pumas (n = 641) and bobcats (n = 212) and shelter domestic cats (n = 304). Samples were collected from coincident habitats across the United States between 1985 and 2018. FeLV infection was detected in 3.12% of the puma samples, 0.47% of the bobcat samples, and 6.25% of the domestic cat samples analyzed. Puma prevalence varied by location, with Florida having the highest rate of infection. FeLV env sequences revealed variation among isolates, and we identified two distinct clades. Both progressive and regressive infections were identified in cats and pumas. Based on the time and location of sampling and phylogenetic analysis, we inferred 3 spillover events between domestic cats and pumas; 3 puma-to-puma transmissions in Florida were inferred. An additional 14 infections in pumas likely represented spillover events following contact with reservoir host domestic cat populations. Our data provide evidence that FeLV transmission from domestic cats to pumas occurs widely across the United States, and puma-to-puma transmission may occur in genetically and geographically constrained populations. IMPORTANCE Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus that primarily affects domestic cats. Close interactions with domestic cats, including predation, can lead to the interspecific transmission of the virus to pumas, bobcats, or other feline species. Some infected individuals develop progressive infections, which are associated with clinical signs of disease and can result in mortality. Therefore, outbreaks of FeLV in wildlife, including the North American puma and the endangered Florida panther, are of high conservation concern. This work provides a greater understanding of the dynamics of the transmission of FeLV between domestic cats and wild felids and presents evidence of multiple spillover events and infections in all sampled populations. These findings highlight the concern for pathogen spillover from domestic animals to wildlife but also identify an opportunity to understand viral evolution following cross-species transmissions more broadly.

Effects of hunting on mating, relatedness, and genetic diversity in a puma population.

Hunting mortality can affect population abundance, demography, patterns of dispersal and philopatry, breeding, and genetic diversity. We investigated the effects of hunting on the reproduction and genetic diversity in a puma population in western Colorado, USA. We genotyped over 11,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), using double-digest, restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq) in 291 tissue samples collected as part of a study on the effects of hunting on puma population abundance and demography in Colorado from 2004 to 2014. The study was designed with a reference period (years 1-5), during which hunting was suspended, followed by a treatment period (years 6-10), in which hunting was reinstated. Our objectives were to examine the effects of hunting on: (1) paternity and male reproductive success; (2) the relatedness between pumas within the population, and (3) genetic diversity. We found that hunting reduced the average age of male breeders. The number of unique fathers siring litters increased each year without hunting and decreased each year during the hunting period. Mated pairs were generally unrelated during both time periods, and females were more closely related than males. Hunting was also associated with increased relatedness among males and decreased relatedness among females in the population. Finally, genetic diversity increased during the period without hunting and decreased each year when hunting was present. This study demonstrates the utility of merging demographic data with large-scale genomic datasets in order to better understand the consequences of management actions. Specifically, we believe that this study highlights the need for long-term experimental research in which hunting mortality is manipulated, including at least one non-harvested control population, as part of a broader adaptive, zone management scheme.

Habitat fragmentation reduces survival and drives source-sink dynamics for a large carnivore.

Rigorous understanding of how environmental conditions impact population dynamics is essential for species conservation, especially in mixed-use landscapes where source-sink dynamics may be at play. Conservation of large carnivore populations in fragmented, human-dominated landscapes is critical for their long-term persistence. However, living in human-dominated landscapes comes with myriad costs, including direct anthropogenic mortality and sublethal energetic costs. How these costs impact individual fitness and population dynamics are not fully understood, partly due to the difficulty in collecting long-term demographic data for these species. Here, we analyzed an 11-year dataset on puma (Puma concolor) space use, mortality, and reproduction in the Santa Cruz Mountains, California, USA, to quantify how living in a fragmented landscape impacts individual survival and population dynamics. Long-term exposure to housing density drove mortality risk for female pumas, resulting in an 18-percentage-point reduction in annual survival for females in exurban versus remote areas. While the overall population growth rate appeared stable, reduced female survival in more developed areas resulted in source-sink dynamics across the study area, with 42.1% of the Santa Cruz Mountains exhibiting estimated population growth rates <1. Since habitat selection is often used as a proxy for habitat quality, we also assessed whether puma habitat selection predicted source and sink areas. Patterns of daytime puma habitat selection predicted source areas, while time-of-day-independent habitat selection performed less well as a proxy. These results illuminate the individual- and population-level consequences of habitat fragmentation for large carnivores, illustrating that habitat fragmentation can produce source-sink dynamics that may not be apparent from other metrics of habitat quality. Locally, conserving high-quality source habitat within the Santa Cruz Mountains is necessary to support long-term puma population persistence. More broadly, source-sink dynamics may at play for other carnivore populations in similar fragmented systems, and linking landscape conditions to population dynamics is essential for effective conservation. Caution should be used in inferring habitat quality from habitat selection alone, but these results shed light on metrics of selection that may be better or worse proxies to identify source areas for large carnivores.

Ecological and molecular associations between neotropical wild felids and Taenia (Cestoda: Taeniidae) in the Atlantic Forest: a new report for Taenia omissa.

Ecological associations between wild felids and parasites from the Taeniidae family are related to predator-prey interactions, where felids act as definitive hosts while their prey, herbivores and/or omnivores, act as intermediate hosts. In the Atlantic Forest, six neotropical felid species coexist in sympatry, but the ecological parasite-host interactions remain poorly studied. Taenia omissa is a tapeworm that parasitizes cougars (Puma concolor) as its only definitive host and their ungulate prey as intermediate hosts. The aim of this study was to identify tapeworms present in road-killed fauna using both molecular and morphological characteristics and their predator-prey relationship. Adult tapeworms found in a cougar, a jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi), and two ocelots (Leopardus pardalis); and metacestodes found in a red brocket deer (Mazama americana) and a wild guinea pig (Cavia aperea) were analyzed. Through morphological analysis of rostellar hooks and molecular analysis of the mitochondrial genetic marker cox1, Taenia omissa adult individuals were identified in the cougar, and metacestodes in the red brocket deer, proving the existence of a full host-parasite life cycle in the Atlantic Forest region. This new report reveals the southernmost record of T. omissa and broadens its geographic distribution. In addition, isolates of the Taenia genus divergent from those described so far in molecular databases were reported and suggested a wild cycle that involves the jaguarundi and agouti (Dasyprocta asarae) as definitive and intermediate hosts, respectively. These results highlight the complexity of the tapeworm population in the region and the need to study it with both morphological and molecular approaches.

Cascading effects of a disease outbreak in a remote protected area.

Disease outbreaks induced by humans increasingly threaten wildlife communities worldwide. Like predators, pathogens can be key top-down forces in ecosystems, initiating trophic cascades that may alter food webs. An outbreak of mange in a remote Andean protected area caused a dramatic population decline in a mammalian herbivore (the vicuña), creating conditions to test the cascading effects of disease on the ecological community. By comparing a suite of ecological measurements to pre-disease baseline records, we demonstrate that mange restructured tightly linked trophic interactions previously driven by a mammalian predator (the puma). Following the mange outbreak, scavenger (Andean condor) occurrence in the ecosystem declined sharply and plant biomass and cover increased dramatically in predation refuges where herbivory was historically concentrated. The evidence shows that a disease-induced trophic cascade, mediated by vicuña density, could supplant the predator-induced trophic cascade, mediated by vicuña behaviour, thereby transforming the Andean ecosystem.

Interactive effects of wildfires, season and predator activity shape mule deer movements.

Wildfires are increasing in size, frequency and severity due to climate change and fire suppression, but the direct and indirect effects on wildlife remain largely unresolved. Fire removes forest canopy, which can improve forage for ungulates but also reduce snow interception, leading to a deeper snowpack and potentially increased vulnerability to predation in winter. If ungulates exhibit predator-mediated foraging, burns should generally be selected for in summer to access high-quality forage and avoided in winter to reduce predation risk in deep snow. Fires also typically increase the amount of deadfall and initiate the growth of dense understory vegetation, creating obstacles that may confer a hunting advantage to stalking predators and a disadvantage to coursing predators. To minimize risk, ungulates may therefore avoid burns when and where stalking predators are most active, and use burns when and where coursing predators are most active. We used telemetry data from GPS-collared mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), cougars (Puma concolor) and wolves (Canis lupus) to develop step selection functions to examine how mule deer navigated species-specific predation risk across a landscape in northern Washington, USA, that has experienced substantial wildfire activity during the past several decades. We considered a diverse array of wildfire impacts, accounting for both the severity of the fire and time since the burn (1-35 years) in our analyses. We observed support for the predator mediating foraging hypothesis: mule deer generally selected for burned areas in summer and avoided burns in winter. In addition, deer increased use of burned areas when and where wolf activity was high and avoided burns when and where cougar use was high in winter, suggesting the hunting mode of resident predators mediated the seasonal response of deer to burns. Deer were not more likely to die by predation in burned than in unburned areas, indicating that they adequately manage fire-induced changes to predation risk. As fire activity increases with climate change, our findings indicate the impact on ungulates will depend on trade-offs between enhanced summer forage and functionally reduced winter range, mediated by characteristics of the predator community.

Temporal scale of habitat selection for large carnivores: Balancing energetics, risk and finding prey.

When navigating heterogeneous landscapes, large carnivores must balance trade-offs between multiple goals, including minimizing energetic expenditure, maintaining access to hunting opportunities and avoiding potential risk from humans. The relative importance of these goals in driving carnivore movement likely changes across temporal scales, but our understanding of these dynamics remains limited. Here we quantified how drivers of movement and habitat selection changed with temporal grain for two large carnivore species living in human-dominated landscapes, providing insights into commonalities in carnivore movement strategies across regions. We used high-resolution GPS collar data and integrated step selection analyses to model movement and habitat selection for African lions Panthera leo in Laikipia, Kenya and pumas Puma concolor in the Santa Cruz Mountains of California across eight temporal grains, ranging from 5 min to 12 hr. Analyses considered landscape covariates that are related to energetics, resource acquisition and anthropogenic risk. For both species, topographic slope, which strongly influences energetic expenditure, drove habitat selection and movement patterns over fine temporal grains but was less important at longer temporal grains. In contrast, avoiding anthropogenic risk during the day, when risk was highest, was consistently important across grains, but the degree to which carnivores relaxed this avoidance at night was strongest for longer term movements. Lions and pumas modified their movement behaviour differently in response to anthropogenic features: lions sped up while near humans at fine temporal grains, while pumas slowed down in more developed areas at coarse temporal grains. Finally, pumas experienced a trade-off between energetically efficient movement and avoiding anthropogenic risk. Temporal grain is an important methodological consideration in habitat selection analyses, as drivers of both movement and habitat selection changed across temporal grain. Additionally, grain-dependent patterns can reflect meaningful behavioural processes, including how fitness-relevant goals influence behaviour over different periods of time. In applying multi-scale analysis to fine-resolution data, we showed that two large carnivore species in very different human-dominated landscapes balanced competing energetic and safety demands in largely similar ways. These commonalities suggest general strategies of landscape use across large carnivore species.

Spatial distribution patterns of tick community structure in sympatric jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) from three ecoregions in Mexico.

We examined tick communities on wild felid hosts in three ecoregions of Mexico. We collected 186 ticks of 7 species from 10 pumas (Puma concolor) and 9 jaguars (Panthera onca). Tick community composition varied across the ecoregions, and across host species within each region. Overall, Ixodes affinis, Amblyomma ovale, and Amblyomma tenellum were the most abundant species; however, only the latter two ticks were distributed across all three ecoregions, while I. affinis, along with Ixodes spinipalpis, Amblyomma inornatum, and Amblyomma parvum were restricted to more limited geographical regions. Ixodes affinis occurred strictly in southern tropical rainforest ecoregions and was significantly more abundant in Selva Lacandona compared with the Yucatán Peninsula. Amblyomma ovale was significantly more common in the tropical dry forest in the Pacific coastal ecoregion. Amblyomma tenellum abundance tended to be higher on jaguars, while I. affinis abundance was higher on pumas. Regional distribution patterns of some tick species (e.g., I. affinis and I. spinipalpis) may be determined by off-host environmental conditions rather than host factors. In contrast, at the local scale, occurrence and abundance of some tick species (e.g., A. tenellum, A. ovale and Rhipicephalus microplus) might be driven by ecological-host factors, such as habitat use or predator-prey relationships.

Presence of Endogenous Viral Elements Negatively Correlates with Feline Leukemia Virus Susceptibility in Puma and Domestic Cat Cells.

While feline leukemia virus (FeLV) has been shown to infect felid species other than the endemic domestic cat host, differences in FeLV susceptibility among species has not been evaluated. Previous reports have noted a negative correlation between endogenous FeLV (enFeLV) copy number and exogenous FeLV (exFeLV) infection outcomes in domestic cats. Since felids outside the genus Felis do not harbor enFeLV genomes, we hypothesized absence of enFeLV results in more severe disease consequences in felid species lacking these genomic elements. We infected primary fibroblasts isolated from domestic cats (Felis catus) and pumas (Puma concolor) with FeLV and quantitated proviral and viral antigen loads. Domestic cat enFeLV env and long terminal repeat (LTR) copy numbers were determined for each individual and compared to FeLV viral outcomes. FeLV proviral and antigen levels were also measured in 6 naturally infected domestic cats and 11 naturally infected Florida panthers (P. concolor coryi). We demonstrated that puma fibroblasts are more permissive to FeLV than domestic cat cells, and domestic cat FeLV restriction was highly related to enFeLV-LTR copy number. Terminal tissues from FeLV-infected Florida panthers and domestic cats had similar exFeLV proviral copy numbers, but Florida panther tissues have higher FeLV antigen loads. Our work indicates that enFeLV-LTR elements negatively correlate with exogenous FeLV replication. Further, Puma concolor samples lacking enFeLV are more permissive to FeLV infection than domestic cat samples, suggesting that endogenization can play a beneficial role in mitigating exogenous retroviral infections. Conversely, presence of endogenous retroelements may relate to new host susceptibility during viral spillover events.IMPORTANCE Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) can infect a variety of felid species. Only the primary domestic cat host and related small cat species harbor a related endogenous virus in their genomes. Previous studies noted a negative association between the endogenous virus copy number and exogenous virus infection in domestic cats. This report shows that puma cells, which lack endogenous FeLV, produce more virus more rapidly than domestic cat fibroblasts following cell culture challenge. We document a strong association between domestic cat cell susceptibility and FeLV long terminal repeat (LTR) copy number, similar to observations in natural FeLV infections. Viral replication does not, however, correlate with FeLV env copy number, suggesting that this effect is specific to FeLV-LTR elements. This discovery indicates a protective capacity of the endogenous virus against the exogenous form, either via direct interference or indirectly via gene regulation, and may suggest evolutionary outcomes of retroviral endogenization.

Wild carnivores, domestic dogs and ticks: shared parasitism in the Brazilian Cerrado.

The increase of contact between natural and rural areas is prominent in Brazil, due to agricultural activities and concern with the environmental conservation. In this context, domestic animals, wild fauna and humans are exposed to mutual exchange of parasites, microorganisms and diseases. We studied tick parasitism of wild carnivores and domestic dogs, and the environmental of questing ticks, in extensive cattle ranch areas intermingled with natural vegetation, and in a natural reserve, both in a region of Cerrado biome, Midwestern Brazil. From 2008 to 2015, we inspected 119 wild carnivores from nine species, and collected six tick species (Amblyomma sculptum, Amblyomma ovale, Amblyomma dubitatum, Amblyomma tigrinum, Dermacentor nitens and Rhipicephalus microplus). The most numerous and infested hosts were Cerdocyon thous, Lycalopex vetulus, Chrysocyon brachyurus, Puma concolor and Conepatus amazonicus. From 139 domestic dogs, we collected A. sculptum, Rhipicephalus sanguineus and R. microplus. From vegetation, samplings resulted in A. sculptum, A. dubitatum, A. ovale, Amblyomma rotundatum and R. microplus, with dominance of A. sculptum. Domestics and wild animals presented high overlapping of infestations by A. sculptum, a generalist and anthropophilic tick species. This tick is the most important vector of the Brazilian spotted fever, a lethal human disease. This fact elicits attention and requires efforts to monitor the presence of pathogens vectored by ticks circulating in this type of agroecosystem, including in other regions of the Brazil, because the most of the natural vegetation remaining have been increasingly immersed in pastures and agricultural matrix.

Multiple Introductions of Domestic Cat Feline Leukemia Virus in Endangered Florida Panthers.

The endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) had an outbreak of infection with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) in the early 2000s that resulted in the deaths of 3 animals. A vaccination campaign was instituted during 2003-2007 and no additional cases were recorded until 2010. During 2010-2016, six additional FeLV cases were documented. We characterized FeLV genomes isolated from Florida panthers from both outbreaks and compared them with full-length genomes of FeLVs isolated from contemporary Florida domestic cats. Phylogenetic analyses identified at least 2 circulating FeLV strains in panthers, which represent separate introductions from domestic cats. The original FeLV virus outbreak strain is either still circulating or another domestic cat transmission event has occurred with a closely related variant. We also report a case of a cross-species transmission event of an oncogenic FeLV recombinant (FeLV-B). Evidence of multiple FeLV strains and detection of FeLV-B indicate Florida panthers are at high risk for FeLV infection.

Urbanization impacts apex predator gene flow but not genetic diversity across an urban-rural divide.

Apex predators are important indicators of intact natural ecosystems. They are also sensitive to urbanization because they require broad home ranges and extensive contiguous habitat to support their prey base. Pumas (Puma concolor) can persist near human developed areas, but urbanization may be detrimental to their movement ecology, population structure, and genetic diversity. To investigate potential effects of urbanization in population connectivity of pumas, we performed a landscape genomics study of 130 pumas on the rural Western Slope and more urbanized Front Range of Colorado, USA. Over 12,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped using double-digest, restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq). We investigated patterns of gene flow and genetic diversity, and tested for correlations between key landscape variables and genetic distance to assess the effects of urbanization and other landscape factors on gene flow. Levels of genetic diversity were similar for the Western Slope and Front Range, but effective population sizes were smaller, genetic distances were higher, and there was more admixture in the more urbanized Front Range. Forest cover was strongly positively associated with puma gene flow on the Western Slope, while impervious surfaces restricted gene flow and more open, natural habitats enhanced gene flow on the Front Range. Landscape genomic analyses revealed differences in puma movement and gene flow patterns in rural versus urban settings. Our results highlight the utility of dense, genome-scale markers to document subtle impacts of urbanization on a wide-ranging carnivore living near a large urban center.

Extinction vortex dynamics of top predators isolated by urbanization.

Extinction risk is elevated in small, isolated populations due to demographic and genetic interactions. Therefore, it is critical to model these processes realistically in population viability analyses (PVA) to inform local management and contribute to a greater understanding of mechanisms within the extinction vortex. We conducted PVA's for two small mountain lion populations isolated by urbanization in southern California to predict population growth, extinction probability, and loss of genetic diversity with empirical data. Specifically, we (1) provide the first PVA for isolated mountain lions in the Santa Ana Mountains (SAM) that considers both demographic and genetic risk factors and (2) test the hypothesis that variation in abundance and mortality between the SAM and Santa Monica Mountains (SMM) result in differences in population growth, loss of heterozygosity, and extinction probability. Our models predicted 16-21% probability of local extinction in the SAM due purely to demographic processes over 50 yr with current low levels or no immigration. Our models also predicted that genetic diversity will further erode in the SAM such that concern regarding inbreeding depression is warranted unless gene flow is increased, and that if inbreeding depression occurs, rapid local extinction will be highly likely. Dynamics of the two populations were broadly similar, but they also exhibited differences driven by larger population size and higher mortality in the SAM. Density-independent scenarios predicted a rapidly increasing population in the SMM, whereas growth potential did not differ from a stable trend in the SAM. Demographic extinction probability and loss of heterozygosity were greater in the SMM for density-dependent scenarios without immigration. However, higher levels of immigration had stronger, positive influences on both demographic viability and retention of genetic diversity in the SMM driven by lower abundance and higher adult survival. Our results elucidate demographic and genetic threats to small populations within the extinction vortex, and how these vary relative to demographic structure. Importantly, simulating seemingly attainable increases in connectivity was sufficient to greatly reduce extinction probability. Our work highlights that conservation of large carnivores is achievable within urbanized landscapes, but requires land protection, connectivity, and strategies to promote coexistence with humans.

Integrating temporal refugia into landscapes of fear: prey exploit predator downtimes to forage in risky places.

The landscape of fear is an important driver of prey space use. However, prey can navigate the landscape of fear by exploiting temporal refuges from predation risk. We hypothesized that diel patterns of predator and prey movement and space use would be inversely correlated due to temporal constraints on predator habitat domain. Specifically, we evaluated habitat selection and activity of the vicuña and its only predator, the puma, during three diel periods: day, dawn/dusk, and night. Pumas selected the same habitats regardless of diel period-vegetated and rugged areas that feature stalking cover for pumas-but increased their activity levels during dawn/dusk and night when they benefit from reduced detection by prey. Vicuñas avoided areas selected by pumas and reduced activity at night, but selected vegetated areas and increased activity by day and dawn/dusk. Vicuña habitat selection and movement strategies appeared to reduce the risk of encountering pumas; movement rates of pumas and vicuñas were negatively correlated across the diel cycle, and habitat selection was negatively correlated during dawn/dusk and night. Our study shows that an ambush predator's temporal activity and space use patterns interact to create diel refugia and shape the antipredator behaviors of its prey. Importantly, it is likely the very nature of ambush predators' static habitat specificity that makes predator activity important to temporally varying perceptions of risk. Prey which depend on risky habitats for foraging appear to mitigate risk by feeding when they can more easily detect predators and when predators are least active.

Hunger mediates apex predator's risk avoidance response in wildland-urban interface.

Conflicts between large mammalian predators and humans present a challenge to conservation efforts, as these events drive human attitudes and policies concerning predator species. Unfortunately, generalities portrayed in many empirical carnivore landscape selection studies do not provide an explanation for a predator's occasional use of residential development preceding a carnivore-human conflict event. In some cases, predators may perceive residential development as a risk-reward trade-off. We examine whether state-dependent mortality risk-sensitive foraging can explain an apex carnivore's (Puma concolor) occasional utilization of residential areas. We assess whether puma balance the risk and rewards in a system characterized by a gradient of housing densities ranging from wildland to suburban. Puma GPS location data, characterized as hunting and feeding locations, were used to assess landscape variables governing hunting success and hunting site selection. Hunting site selection behaviour was then analysed conditional on indicators of hunger state. Residential development provided a high energetic reward to puma based on increases in prey availability and hunting success rates associated with increased housing density. Despite a higher energetic reward, hunting site selection analysis indicated that pumas generally avoided residential development, a landscape type attributed with higher puma mortality risk. However, when a puma experienced periods of extended hunger, risk avoidance behaviour towards housing waned. This study demonstrates that an apex carnivore faces a trade-off between acquiring energetic rewards and avoiding risks associated with human housing. Periods of hunger can help explain an apex predator's occasional use of developed landscapes and thus the rare conflicts in the wildland-urban interface. Apex carnivore movement behaviours in relation to human conflicts are best understood as a three-player community-level interaction incorporating wild prey distribution.

SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF APPENDICULAR LONG-BONE FRACTURES IN FREE-RANGING FLORIDA PANTHERS ( PUMA CONCOLOR CORYI): SIX CASES (2000-2014).

The clinical outcomes of six free-ranging Florida panthers ( Puma concolor coryi) that underwent surgical stabilization of appendicular long-bone fractures (three femoral fractures, one tibial and one tibial and fibular fracture and two radial and ulnar fractures) were evaluated. These panthers presented to the University of Florida from 2000-2014. Estimated age of the panthers ranged from 0.5 to 4.5 yr, and weights ranged from 22 to 65 kg. Causes of injuries were vehicular collision ( n = 4) and capture related ( n = 2). All panthers underwent open reduction and fracture stabilization. Fixation failure necessitated three subsequent surgeries in one panther. Five panthers survived the immediate postoperative period, and all of these panthers' fractures obtained radiographic union (range, 8-36 [mean, 22] wk). The five surviving panthers underwent convalescence for 7-14 mo at White Oak Conservation Center before being released back into the wild; however, one panther was killed when hit by a car 3 days after release. The remaining four panthers were tracked for up to 106 mo in the wild and successfully integrated back into the native population. Surgical stabilization of appendicular long-bone fractures in free-ranging Florida panthers can be successful, but must take into account the stress that a large, undomesticated felid will place on the stabilized limb during convalescence as well as the difficulties involved in rehabilitating a wild panther in captivity.