Children's representation of specialized skilled movements: The cases of snowboarding and aikido.

This article investigates children's graphic representation of two complex motor skills, snowboarding and aikido, from the perspective of drawing flexibility research. In particular, the role of working memory capacity in the development of drawing flexibility is examined. A total of 127 children in the age range 5.7-11.9 years were shown short videos of snowboarding and aikido and were required to make drawings of them. In addition, participants were administered Goodenough's Draw-a-man Test (that measures the ability to draw detail and proportion in the human figure) and two working memory tests (the Mr. Cucumber test and the Backward Digit Span). The snowboarding and aikido drawings were scored for 19 or 13 features, respectively, on which they could differ from the participant's standard drawing of a person. The snowboarding and aikido scores were correlated, also controlling for age and Draw-a-man scores, indicating a common variance for drawing flexibility. The drawing flexibility scores increased with age, and were correlated with working memory capacity, also controlling for age and Draw-a-man scores. These results are consistent with a neo-Piagetian model of drawing flexibility development. Detailed analyses are also provided on children's production of stick figures and "transparencies," and on the relation of each single modified feature with age and working memory capacity.

Biomechanical evaluation of Back injuries during typical snowboarding backward falls.

To prevent spinal and back injuries in snowboarding, back protector devices (BPDs) have been increasingly used. The biomechanical knowledge for the BPD design and evaluation remains to be explored in snowboarding accident conditions. This study aims to evaluate back-to-snow impact conditions and the associated back injury mechanisms in typical snowboarding backward falls. A previously validated snowboarder multi-body model was first used to evaluate the impact zones on the back and the corresponding impact velocities in a total of 324 snowboarding backward falls. The biomechanical responses during back-to-snow impacts were then evaluated by applying the back-to-snow impact velocity to a full human body finite element model to fall on the snow ground of three levels of stiffness (soft, hard, and icy snow). The mean values of back-to-snow normal and tangential impact velocities were 2.4 m/s and 7.3 m/s with maximum values up to 4.8 m/s and 18.5 m/s. The lower spine had the highest normal impact velocity during snowboarding backward falls. The thoracic spine was found more likely to exceed the limits of flexion-extension range of motions than the lumbar spine during back-to-snow impacts, indicating a higher injury risk. On the hard and icy snow, rib cage and vertebral fractures were predicted at the costal cartilage and the posterior elements of the vertebrae. Despite the possible back injuries, the back-to-snow impact force was always lower than the force thresholds of the current BPD testing standard. The current work provides additional biomechanical knowledge for the future design of back protections for snowboarders.

Are Different Aged Youth Skiers and Snowboarders Experiencing Different Injury Characteristics?

INTRODUCTION: Skiing and snowboarding are popular winter sports with significant youth participation and inherent potential for injury. We investigated the relationship between age and injury characteristics exhibited by youth skiers and snowboarders. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, we investigated injury characteristics among youth skiers and snowboarders at a ski resort, examining the association between age and injury type. We compared injury characteristics among young children (aged 3-6 y), school-aged children (aged 7-14 y), and older adolescents (aged 15-17 y) using χ2, and examined predictive variables for injuries at different anatomical locations using logistic regression. RESULTS: Compared with snowboarding, skiing was associated with greater odds of lower extremity (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]=6.8, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.89, 9.47, P<0.001) and head/face/neck (aOR=1.63, 95% CI: 1.20, 2.21, P=0.002) injuries. Compared with skiing, snowboarding was associated with greater odds of upper extremity injury (aOR=5.9, 95% CI: 4.6, 7.6, P<0.001). Age group significantly affected injury mechanism (χ2 [df=12, n=1129]=42.882, P<0.0001) and diagnosis (χ2 [df=12, n=1129]=43.093, P<0.0001). Young child skiers had the highest proportion of injuries to the head/neck/face and lower extremities and a significantly higher proportion of collision injuries and fractures than older skiers. Young child skiers most frequently injured the lower leg/ankle, while older skiers most frequently injured the knee. CONCLUSIONS: Youth skiers exhibited predominately lower extremity injuries, while snowboarders exhibited predominately upper extremity injuries. Age significantly affected injury mechanism and injury diagnosis in youth skiers. Specifically, younger skiers tended to suffer more fractures and collision injuries than older youth skiers.

Winter sport musculoskeletal injuries: epidemiology and factors predicting hospital admission.

INTRODUCTION: Participation in winter sports such as skiing, snowboarding and snowmobiling is associated with risk of musculoskeletal injury. The purpose of our study was to describe and quantify emergency department encounters associated with these sports. METHODS: The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) was queried for skiing-, snowboarding- and snowmobiling-related injuries from 2009 to 2018. Patient demographics and disposition data were collected from emergency department encounters. Descriptive statistics were utilized to describe the trends in injuries from each sport and factors associated with the sports-specific injuries. RESULTS: From 2009 to 2018, there were an estimated 156,353 injuries related to snowboarding, skiing, or snowmobiling. Estimated injury incidence per 100,000 people decreased over time for skiing (3.24-1.23), snowboarding (3.98-1.22,) and snowmobiling (0.71-0.22,). The most common injury location by sport was shoulder for skiing (29.6%), wrist for snowboarding (32.5%) and shoulder for snowmobiling (21.9%), with fractures being the most common diagnosis. Only 4.5% required admission to the hospital. Fracture or dislocation was associated with highest likelihood of hospital admission (OR 42.34; 95% CI 22.59-79.37). Snowmobiling injuries (OR 1.63; 95% CI 1.20-2.22) and white race (OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.17-1.72) were also both associated with increased risk of hospital admission. CONCLUSIONS: Upper extremity injuries, particularly those involving fractures, were more common than lower extremity injuries for all three sports, with the shoulder being the most common location of injury for skiing and snowmobiling. This study can serve as the foundation for future research in sports safety and health policy to continue the declining trend of musculoskeletal injuries in the future. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Individual behavioral and sporting risk factors affecting injuries in recreational skiers and snowboarders: a case-control study.

This case-control study aimed to analysis of the relationship between individual behaviours and sports risk factors and injuries among skiers and snowboarders. During the 2021-2022 winter season, 1132 injured and 1069 non-injured skiers and snowboarders were surveyed regarding demographic, self-reported individual behavioural and sporting characteristics. Multivariate regression analysis revealed previous snow-sports injury (OR: 26.39, 95% CI: 13.32-52.31, P < 0.001), nervousness (OR: 3.78, 95% CI: 2.91-4.90, P < 0.001), calm (OR: 1.90, 95% CI: 1.46-2.48, P < 0.001) and fearful (OR: 20.60, 95% CI: 11.45-37.04, P < 0.001) emotional states, and higher risk-taking behaviours (OR: 3.72, 95% CI: 2.87-4.83, P < 0.001) were important risk factors associated with injuries to all skiers and snowboarders. Compared to snowboarders, the risk of injury to skiers was more likely to increase as the length of their skiing experience increases. Emotional and cognitive levels appear to be important conditions that influence injuries to skiers and snowboarders, a proper understanding of the potential interactions between cognition and behaviour appears to be important for public ski safety management.

Closed Reduction of Anterior Shoulder Dislocations Performed by Ski Patrollers in the Alpine Prehospital Environment: A Retrospective Review Demonstrating Efficacy in a Canadian Ski Resort.

INTRODUCTION: Shoulder dislocations are common ski hill injuries. Rapid reduction is known to improve outcomes; however, advanced providers are not always available to provide care to these patients. In 2017, nonmedical ski patrollers at Sunshine Village ski resort in Alberta, Canada, were trained to perform anterior shoulder dislocation (ASD) reductions. Program success was determined by a chart review after the 2020 ski season. METHODS: This study retrospectively reviewed data on patients who presented to Sunshine Village ski patrol with a suspected ASD and who met the study inclusion criteria from November 2017 through March 2020. Data were collected from ski patrol electronic patient care records regarding general demographics, reduction technique used, analgesia administration, and reduction success rates. RESULTS: Ninety-six cases were available for review after exclusions. Trained nonmedical ski patrollers successfully reduced 82 of these cases, resulting in an overall reduction success rate of 89%. Sixty-three (66%) of these patients had experienced first-time dislocations. Eighty-two (87%) patients were male, with a median age of 25 y. The most used technique was the Cunningham method (75%), and analgesia was administered to 70% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: This retrospective study documents the results of a quality assurance review of the treatment of ASD at Sunshine Village ski resort. With a success rate of 89%, the evidence supports the conclusion that nonmedical ski patrollers can successfully perform ASD reductions. We believe training ski patrollers to reduce ASD improved patient care in our austere environment by providing early definitive treatment with a high success rate.

Understanding youths' attitudes and practices regarding listening to music, video recording and terrain park use while skiing and snowboarding.

BACKGROUND: Skiing and snowboarding are popular activities among Canadian youth and these sports have evolved to include certain risk behaviours such as listening to music, using terrain parks, and video recording yourself or others. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of these risk behaviours and identify factors that are associated with the risk behaviours. METHODS: Using focus group methodology, a questionnaire was developed to capture aspects of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. A cross-sectional study was conducted where the questionnaire was administered to youth aged 13-18 during two winter seasons at two ski hills in Manitoba, Canada. RESULTS: The sample was comprised of 735 youth (mean age 14.9; 82.1% male, 83.6% snowboarding). The most common behavior was using the TP (83.1%), followed by listening to music that day (36.9%), and video recording that day (34.5%). Youth had significantly higher odds of listening to music that day if they planned to next time (OR 19.13; 95% CI: 10.62, 34.44), were skiing or snowboarding alone (OR 2.33; 95% CI: 1.10, 4.95), or thought listening to music makes skiing or snowboarding more exciting or fun or makes them feel more confident (OR 2.30; 95% CI: 1.31, 4.05). They were less likely to if they believed that music made it more difficult to hear or talk to others (OR: 0.35; 95% CI: 0.18, 0.65). Youth had significantly higher odds of using the terrain park if they believed that terrain parks were cool, challenging, or fun (OR: 5.84; 95% CI: 2.85, 11.96) or if their siblings used terrain parks (OR: 4.94; OR: 2.84, 9.85). Those who believed that terrain parks were too busy or crowded (OR: 0.31; 95% CI: 0.16, 0.62) were less likely to use them. Youth had significantly higher odds of video recording that day if they reported that they plan to video record next time (OR: 8.09, 95% CI: 4.67, 14.01) or if they were skiing or snowboarding with friends (OR: 3.65, 95% CI: 1.45, 9.18). Youth had significantly higher odds of video recording that day if they agreed that recording makes them try harder and improved their tricks (OR: 3.34, 95% CI: 1.38, 8.08) compared to those who neither agreed nor disagreed. Youth were less likely to record themselves that day if their friends did not do so (OR: 0.36; 95% CI: 0.16, 0.80). CONCLUSION: Common predictors of engaging in risk behaviours suggest that injury prevention programs may not have to be specific to each behaviour. Some strategies for injury prevention are suggested.

Wrist Fractures in Skiers and Snowboarders: Incidence, Severity, and Risk Factors Over 40 Seasons.

PURPOSE: To determine and compare the incidence and severity of wrist fractures in skiers and snowboarders. METHODS: A university-run orthopedic clinic at the base of a major ski resort has maintained an injury database spanning the years 1972 to 2012. Demographic information, equipment type, ability level, trail type and conditions, number of falls, circumstances surrounding the injury, and radiographs were collected on participants sustaining wrist fractures and compared with uninjured control participants asked the same questions, but in reference to their last fall where no injury resulted. A risk factor model for wrist fracture and severity in alpine sports was developed. RESULTS: During the 40-year period, 679 wrist fractures were identified. The incidence of wrist fracture per 1,000 days was 0.447 in snowboarders and 0.024 in skiers. In comparison with a representative sample of uninjured skiers, bivariate analyses revealed that skiers who experienced fractures were less experienced, had a greater number of falls, were on green or double black trails, and were injured owing to jumping or other reason related to technique. A higher risk for fracture was found for beginners, males younger than age 16, women older than age 50, and 4 or fewer days skiing that season. Bivariate analyses found that injured snowboarders were more likely to be female, younger, less experienced and had received less instruction than uninjured snowboarders. Higher risk for wrist fracture among snowboarders was found to be associated with age younger than 18 and less experience. CONCLUSIONS: Wrist fractures occur at an 18 times greater incidence in snowboarders than in skiers. Skiers with wrist fractures were beginners, males younger than 16, women older than 50, or those who had less participation. Snowboarders sustaining wrist fractures were younger than 18 or had less experience. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic III.

A comparison of recreational skiing- and snowboarding-related injuries at a Colorado ski resort, 2012/13-2016/17.

The purpose of this study was to compare injury patterns between recreational skiers and snowboarders. Injured skiers (n = 3,961) and snowboarders (n = 2,428) presented to a mountainside medical clinic, 2012/13-2016/17. Variables investigated for analysis included demographics/characteristics, injury event information, and injury information. Skiers were older than snowboarders (34.3 ± 19.3 vs. 23.2 ± 10.5 years, p < 0.001); a greater proportion of skiers were female (46.3% vs. 27.8%, p < 0.001). Most skiers (84.4%) and snowboarders (84.5%) were helmeted at the time of injury (p = 0.93). Snowboarders were most frequently beginners (38.9%), skiers were intermediates (37.8%). Falls to snow (skiers = 72.3%, snowboarders = 84.8%) and collisions with natural objects (skiers = 9.7%, snowboarders = 7.4%) were common injury mechanisms. Common skiing injuries were knee sprains (20.5%) and head trauma (8.9%); common snowboarding injuries were wrist fractures (25.7%), shoulder separations (9.1%), and head trauma (9.0%). Given that injury patterns significantly differ between sports, it is important for clinicians, ski patrollers, and resorts to develop and deliver sport-specific injury prevention interventions to most effectively decrease injury burden.

The risk of snow sport injury in pediatric patients.

PURPOSE: In 2015, approximately 13,436 snowboarding or skiing injuries occurred in children younger than 15. We describe injury patterns of pediatric snow sport participants based on age, activity at the time of injury, and use of protective equipment. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed of 10-17 year old patients with snow-sport related injuries at a Level-1 trauma center from 2005 to 2015. Participants were divided into groups, 10-13 (middle-school, MS) and 14-17 years (high-school, HS) and compared using chi-square, Student's t-tests, and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: We identified 235 patients. The HS group had a higher proportion of females than MS (17.5% vs. 7.4%, p = 0.03) but groups were otherwise similar. Helmet use was significantly lower in the HS group (51.6% vs. 76.5%, p < 0.01). MS students were more likely to suffer any head injury (aOR 4.66, 95% CI: 1.70-12.8), closed head injury (aOR 3.69 95% CI: 1.37-9.99), or loss of consciousness (aOR 5.56 95% CI 1.76-17.6) after 4 pm. HS students engaging in jumps or tricks had 2.79 times the risk of any head injury (aOR 2.79 95% CI: 1.18-6.57) compared to peers that did not. HS students had increased risk of solid organ injury when helmeted (aOR 4.86 95% CI: 1.30-18.2). CONCLUSIONS: Injured high-school snow sports participants were less likely to wear helmets and more likely to have solid organ injuries when helmeted than middle-schoolers. Additionally, high-schoolers with head injuries were more like to sustain these injures while engaging in jumps or tricks. Injury prevention in this vulnerable population deserves further study. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III (Retrospective Comparative Study).

What are the risk factors for injuries and injury prevention strategies for skiers and snowboarders in terrain parks and half-pipes? A systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To synthesise the current evidence regarding the risk factors, the injury prevention strategies and the profile of injured skiers and snowboarders in terrain parks (TPs) and half-pipes (HPs). DESIGN: Systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines. DATA SOURCES: Literature searches from six electronic databases and manual searches were performed. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES: Inclusion criteria were: (1) publication based on original data; (2) injuries sustained in TPs or HPs; (3) recreational skiing or snowboarding injuries; (4) observational or experimental study design with a comparison group. RESULTS: No study explored the risk factors in HPs or the prevention strategies in TPs or HPs. From the literature retrieved, there is strong evidence that skiing or snowboarding in a TP is a risk factor for head, neck, back and severe injuries. Two papers assessed the risk factors for injuries in TPs, mainly demonstrating that features promoting aerial manoeuvres or a large drop to the ground were associated with higher feature-specific injury rates. The profile of injured skiers and snowboarders in TPs described in the literature suggested some evidence of associations between factors including activity, sex, skill level, helmet use, age and TP injuries. SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS: This systematic review demonstrates the need for studies identifying the risk factors for injuries to skiers and snowboarders and on interventions to reduce the risk of injury in TPs and HPs. Studies addressing the issue of TP design should be considered. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42016045206.

Head injury mechanisms in FIS World Cup alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders.

INTRODUCTION: Head injuries represent a concern in skiing and snowboarding, with traumatic brain injuries being the most common cause of death. AIM: To describe the mechanisms of head and face injuries among World Cup alpine and freestyle skiers and snowboarders. METHODS: We performed a qualitative analysis of videos obtained of head and face injuries reported through the International Ski Federation Injury Surveillance System during 10 World Cup seasons (2006-2016). We analysed 57 head impact injury videos (alpine n=29, snowboard n=13, freestyle n=15), first independently and subsequently in a consensus meeting. RESULTS: During the crash sequence, most athletes (84%) impacted the snow with the skis or board first, followed by the upper or lower extremities, buttocks/pelvis, back and, finally, the head. Alpine skiers had sideways (45%) and backwards pitching falls (35%), with impacts to the rear (38%) and side (35%) of the helmet. Freestyle skiers and snowboarders had backwards pitching falls (snowboard 77%, freestyle 53%), mainly with impacts to the rear of the helmet (snowboard 69%, freestyle 40%). There were three helmet ejections among alpine skiers (10% of cases), and 41% of alpine skiing injuries occurred due to inappropriate gate contact prior to falling. Athletes had one (47%) or two (28%) head impacts, and the first impact was the most severe (71%). Head impacts were mainly on snow (83%) on a downward slope (63%). CONCLUSION: This study has identified several characteristics of the mechanisms of head injuries, which may be addressed to reduce risk.

Head impact velocities in FIS World Cup snowboarders and freestyle skiers: Do real-life impacts exceed helmet testing standards?

INTRODUCTION: Prior to the 2013-2014 season, the International Ski Federation (FIS) increased the helmet testing speed from a minimum requirement of 5.4 to 6.8 m/s for alpine downhill, super-G and giant slalom and for freestyle ski cross, but not for the other freestyle disciplines or snowboarding. Whether this increased testing speed reflects impact velocities in real head injury situations on snow is unclear. We therefore investigated the injury mechanisms and gross head impact biomechanics in four real head injury situations among World Cup (WC) snowboard and freestyle athletes and compared these with helmet homologation laboratory test requirements. The helmets in the four cases complied with at least European Standards (EN) 1077 (Class B) or American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) F2040. METHODS: We analysed four head injury videos from the FIS Injury Surveillance System throughout eight WC seasons (2006-2014) in detail. We used motion analysis software to digitize the helmet's trajectory and estimated the head's kinematics in two dimensions, including directly preimpact and postimpact. RESULTS: All four impacts were to the occiput. In the four cases, the normal-to-slope preimpact velocity ranged from 7.0(±SD 0.2) m/s to 10.5±0.5 m/s and the normal-to-slope velocity change ranged from 8.4±0.6 m/s to 11.7±0.7 m/s. The sagittal plane helmet angular velocity estimates indicated a large change in angular velocity (25.0±2.9 rad/s to 49.1±0.3 rad/s). CONCLUSION: The estimated normal-to-slope preimpact velocity was higher than the current strictest helmet testing rule of 6.8 m/s in all four cases.

Injury patterns and risk factors for orthopaedic trauma from snowboarding and skiing: a national perspective.

PURPOSE: Alpine skiing and snowboarding are both popular winter sports that can be associated with significant orthopaedic injuries. However, there is a lack of nationally representative injury data for the two sports. METHODS: The National Trauma Data Bank was queried for patients presenting to emergency departments due to injuries sustained from skiing and snowboarding during 2011 and 2012. Patient demographics, comorbidities, and injury patterns were tabulated and compared between skiing and snowboarding. Risk factors for increased injury severity score and lack of helmet use were identified using multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Of the 6055 patients identified, 55.2 % were skiers. Sixty-one percent had fractures. Lower extremity fractures were the most common injury and occurred more often in skiers (p < 0.001). Upper extremity fractures were more common in snowboarders, particularly distal radius fractures (p < 0.001). On multivariate analysis, increased injury severity was independently associated with age 18-29, 60-69, 70+, male sex, a positive blood test for alcohol, a positive blood test for an illegal substance, and wearing a helmet. Lack of helmet use was associated with age 18-29, 30-39, smoking, a positive drug test for an illegal substance, and snowboarding. CONCLUSIONS: Young adults, the elderly, and those using substances were shown to be at greater risk of increased injury severity and lack of helmet use. The results of this study can be used clinically to guide the initial assessment of these individuals following injury, as well as for targeting preventive measures and education. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III.

Head injury trends and helmet use in skiers and snowboarders in Western Canada, 2008-2009 to 2012-2013: an ecological study.

This research explored associations between helmet use and head injuries in snowsports by investigating reported snowsport injuries in Western Canada from 2008-2009 to 2012-2013. The key finding was that increased helmet use (from 69% to 80%) was not associated with a reduction in reported head injuries. Over the study period, the average rate of reported head injuries was 0.2/1000 skier visits, with a statistically significant variation (P < 0.001). The line of best fit showed an non-significant upward trend (P = 0.13). Lacerations were the only subcategory of head injuries that decreased significantly with helmet use. A higher proportion of people who reported a head injury were wearing a helmet than for injuries other than to the head. Skiers were more likely to report a head injury when wearing a helmet than snowboarders (P < 0.001 cf. P = 0.22). There were significant differences in characteristics of helmet and non-helmet wearers. Helmet wearers were more likely to be: young adults (P < 0.001); beginner/novices (P = 0.004); and snowboarders (P < 0.001), but helmet wearing was not associated with gender (P = 0.191). Further research is needed to explore the possible reasons for the failure of helmets to reduce head injuries, for example, increased reporting of head injuries and increased risk-taking combined with over-rating of the helmets' protection.

[Epidemiological data of Hungarian skiers' and snowboarders' medical problems]. / A magyar alpesi sízok és hódeszkázók egészségkárosodásainak összehasonlító statisztikai elemzése.

INTRODUCTION AND AIM: There are no high mountains or any advantageous circumstances for winter sports in Hungary, yet within the 10 million population there are about half a million people (the exact number is 550,000) who tend to go for skiing or snowboarding abroad. Authors compared the injury statistical data with results described in the international literature in order to develop conclusions about the differences in the injury patterns and frequency between the Hungarian ones' and those found in countries with plenty of winter sport possibilities. METHOD: Authors analysed the winter sport injury cases of an insurance company. All the injury happened abroad and the assistance provider of the insurance company has managed the patient treatment and repatriation. Three winter seasons (12 months) data was analysed from the point of view of injuries frequency at different body parts and areas. Due to the fact that only limited information was available a simple statistical method was applied. RESULTS: Of 222 cases 90.5% were ski-related injury and 8.6% were snowboard injury. As for the skiers, the upper limb injuries accounted for 21.9%, the truncal region for 24.4% and the lower limb for 55.8%. Among snowboarders the upper limb injuries accounted for 36.9%, the truncal region for 37% and the lower limb for 26.1%. The most frequent was the knee (36.8%), the wrist (12.4) and the shoulder (11.4) injury. Skier's thumb injury was only 1.5%. The most common snowboard injury was the wrist trauma (31.6%), the head/neck/face was accounted 15.8% of all the injuries. And the ankle was injured in 10.5% of all the cases. The head/neck and the knee injury often combined with injuries of some other body part. 29 patients (13%) had to be repatriated, the most frequent reason for the repatriation was the injury of the lower limb. CONCLUSIONS: The Hungarian sportsmen's injury patterns do not always follow data described in the international literature, but they correspond to data of countries with similar geographical situation. The injury rate of knee and of the shoulder displays same data, the injury rate of the wrist was more frequent than in the international data, and this is true both for skiers and the snowboarders. The Hungarians' injury of the truncal region (mainly the head) was more frequent, but on the other hand the general injury rate of other body parts proved to be a lower number. It seems that the frequent use of the protective equipment and the preventive measures applied by the Hungarians are mirrored in the lower injury figures. Orv. Hetil., 2017, 158(16), 618-624.

Differences in Sensation Seeking Between Alpine Skiers, Snowboarders and Ski Tourers.

Despite different injury rates and injury patterns previous personality related research in the field of downhill winter sports did not subdivide between different alpine slope users. In this study, we tried to find out whether the personality trait sensation seeking differs between skiers, snowboarders and ski tourers. In a cross-sectional survey 1185 persons (726 alpine skiers, 321 snowboarders and 138 ski tourers comparable in age and sex) were electronically questioned with the sensation seeking scale (SSS-V) comprising the four factors thrill and adventure seeking, experiences seeking, disinhibition and boredom susceptibility. Kruskal-Wallis Tests revealed a significantly higher total score of the SSS-V for snowboarders in comparison to alpine skiers and ski tourers (H(2) = 41.5, p < 0.001). Ski tourers and snowboarders scored significantly higher in the dimensions "thrill- and adventure-seeking" and "experience-seeking" than alpine skiers. Furthermore, snowboarders showed higher scores in "disinhibition" related to alpine skiers and ski tourers and "boredom susceptibility" compared to alpine skiers. Data show differences in the personality trait sensation seeking in people practising different winter sports. As snowboarders showed higher SS-scores compared to alpine skiers and ski tourers prevention and information programs might benefit from a selective approach focusing on special characteristics of the respective group. Key pointsIt is the very first research trying to identify differences between different types of winter sport slope usersObtained results show higher sensation seeking scores in snowboardersThese results might stimulate new approaches in educational campaigns to reduce accident rates in winter sports.

Are self-reported risk-taking behavior and helmet use associated with injury causes among skiers and snowboarders?

Over the last 10 years, ski helmet use has steadily increased worldwide. According to the "risk compensation theory," however, studies found that up to one third of skiers and snowboarders self-reported to engage in more risk taking when wearing a ski helmet. Therefore, to evaluate whether self-reported risk taking and ski helmet use affect accident causes on ski slopes, more than 2000 injured skiers and snowboarders were interviewed during the 2011/2012 winter season about accident causes and potential intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors. Chi-square tests revealed that ski helmet use did not significantly differ between self-reported risky and cautious people (81% vs 83%). Multivariate regression analysis revealed younger age groups [odds ratios (ORs) 1.8-1.9, P < 005], male sex (OR 2.4, P < 0.001), Austrian nationality (2.2, P < 0.001), higher skill level (1.7, P < 0.001), and off-slope skiing (OR 2.2, P = 0.060) to be predictive for a risky behavior on ski slopes. Neither the use of skis or snowboards nor accident causes were significantly associated with a riskier behavior on ski slopes. In conclusion, self-reported risk-taking behavior and ski helmet use seem not to be associated with accident causes leading to an injury among recreational skiers and snowboarders.

Utah ski patrol: assessing training types and resources.

BACKGROUND: Skiers and snowboarders incur a variety of injuries and medical emergencies each year at ski resorts. The ski patrol is primarily responsible for initial triage, assessment and stabilization of these problems. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to subjectively evaluate the type of training, resources, and equipment available to local ski patrols within Utah. METHODS: Ski patrol directors at ski resorts in Utah were asked to complete a voluntary computerized survey. RESULTS: Of the 14 ski areas in Utah, ski patrol directors representing 8 resorts responded. The majority of patrols in Utah use Outdoor Emergency Care (OEC) as their primary education and certification source. Most programs also include site-specific training in addition to basic certification. All responding resorts had basic first responder equipment, including splinting devices, basic airway management, and hemorrhage control. Six of 8 responding resorts had affiliated clinics, and all had access to aeromedical transport. All of the responding ski patrol directors believed the current training level was adequate. CONCLUSIONS: Utah area ski patrollers frequently see trauma-related injuries and have the resources to assess and provide initial immobilization techniques. Many resorts have affiliated clinics with advanced providers, and all have access to aeromedical support to rapidly transfer patients to trauma centers. Medical directors may be of use for training as well as developing extended scope of practice protocols for advanced airway use or medication administration. Patrols may benefit from additional resort-specific training that addresses other frequently seen injuries or illnesses.

Before hitting the slopes: athlete and staff perspectives on warm-up and activation in high-performance snowsports.

To explore warm-up and activation (W&A) practices in high-performance snowsports to describe their importance, application and potential improvements based on the perspectives of elite-level athletes and staff members. Qualitative study consisting of semistructured interviews with 13 international elite-level athletes, on-snow coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, sports physiotherapists and sports psychologists from different snowsports and subdisciplines: alpine skiing, freestyle skiing (park and pipe, aerials, moguls) and snowboarding (park and pipe, snowboard cross). The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed based on the principles of grounded theory. The main themes raised by the participants were (1) the importance of readiness for sports participation as the motive for W&A, (2) how readiness is reached with a structured W&A routine and (3) the different athlete-specific, task-specific and environmental-specific factors for optimal W&A. Athletes and staff members considered W&A an essential measure to get physically and mentally ready for sports participation. Being ready was described as a key factor for performance and injury prevention. For these athletes, adherence to W&A was the result of a process of experiencing the beneficial effects of W&A and learning from sustaining one or more injuries. Broad implementation of basic physical and mental W&A at the youth level was considered an important measure to increase the overall adoption of W&A as an inherent part of training and competition. At the elite level, W&A is performed to reach athletes' mental and physical readiness for performance enhancement and injury prevention. W&A is acknowledged as a complex and dynamic programme and is typically adapted to sport-specific demands, injury risks, environmental circumstances and individual needs and preferences. Overall, this study provides valuable contextual insights into the complexity of W&A and the factors that need to be considered to make sport-specific recommendations.