TMPRSS2 and glycan receptors synergistically facilitate coronavirus entry.

The entry of coronaviruses is initiated by spike recognition of host cellular receptors, involving proteinaceous and/or glycan receptors. Recently, TMPRSS2 was identified as the proteinaceous receptor for HCoV-HKU1 alongside sialoglycan as a glycan receptor. However, the underlying mechanisms for viral entry remain unknown. Here, we investigated the HCoV-HKU1C spike in the inactive, glycan-activated, and functionally anchored states, revealing that sialoglycan binding induces a conformational change of the NTD and promotes the neighboring RBD of the spike to open for TMPRSS2 recognition, exhibiting a synergistic mechanism for the entry of HCoV-HKU1. The RBD of HCoV-HKU1 features an insertion subdomain that recognizes TMPRSS2 through three previously undiscovered interfaces. Furthermore, structural investigation of HCoV-HKU1A in combination with mutagenesis and binding assays confirms a conserved receptor recognition pattern adopted by HCoV-HKU1. These studies advance our understanding of the complex viral-host interactions during entry, laying the groundwork for developing new therapeutics against coronavirus-associated diseases.

Structural basis of TMPRSS2 zymogen activation and recognition by the HKU1 seasonal coronavirus.

The human seasonal coronavirus HKU1-CoV, which causes common colds worldwide, relies on the sequential binding to surface glycans and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) for entry into target cells. TMPRSS2 is synthesized as a zymogen that undergoes autolytic activation to process its substrates. Several respiratory viruses, in particular coronaviruses, use TMPRSS2 for proteolytic priming of their surface spike protein to drive membrane fusion upon receptor binding. We describe the crystal structure of the HKU1-CoV receptor binding domain in complex with TMPRSS2, showing that it recognizes residues lining the catalytic groove. Combined mutagenesis of interface residues and comparison across species highlight positions 417 and 469 as determinants of HKU1-CoV host tropism. The structure of a receptor-blocking nanobody in complex with zymogen or activated TMPRSS2 further provides the structural basis of TMPRSS2 activating conformational change, which alters loops recognized by HKU1-CoV and dramatically increases binding affinity.

Human coronavirus HKU1 recognition of the TMPRSS2 host receptor.

The human coronavirus HKU1 spike (S) glycoprotein engages host cell surface sialoglycans and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) to initiate infection. The molecular basis of HKU1 binding to TMPRSS2 and determinants of host receptor tropism remain elusive. We designed an active human TMPRSS2 construct enabling high-yield recombinant production in human cells of this key therapeutic target. We determined a cryo-electron microscopy structure of the HKU1 RBD bound to human TMPRSS2, providing a blueprint of the interactions supporting viral entry and explaining the specificity for TMPRSS2 among orthologous proteases. We identified TMPRSS2 orthologs from five mammalian orders promoting HKU1 S-mediated entry into cells along with key residues governing host receptor usage. Our data show that the TMPRSS2 binding motif is a site of vulnerability to neutralizing antibodies and suggest that HKU1 uses S conformational masking and glycan shielding to balance immune evasion and receptor engagement.

SARS-CoV-2 BA.2.86 enters lung cells and evades neutralizing antibodies with high efficiency.

BA.2.86, a recently identified descendant of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron BA.2 sublineage, contains ∼35 mutations in the spike (S) protein and spreads in multiple countries. Here, we investigated whether the virus exhibits altered biological traits, focusing on S protein-driven viral entry. Employing pseudotyped particles, we show that BA.2.86, unlike other Omicron sublineages, enters Calu-3 lung cells with high efficiency and in a serine- but not cysteine-protease-dependent manner. Robust lung cell infection was confirmed with authentic BA.2.86, but the virus exhibited low specific infectivity. Further, BA.2.86 was highly resistant against all therapeutic antibodies tested, efficiently evading neutralization by antibodies induced by non-adapted vaccines. In contrast, BA.2.86 and the currently circulating EG.5.1 sublineage were appreciably neutralized by antibodies induced by the XBB.1.5-adapted vaccine. Collectively, BA.2.86 has regained a trait characteristic of early SARS-CoV-2 lineages, robust lung cell entry, and evades neutralizing antibodies. However, BA.2.86 exhibits low specific infectivity, which might limit transmissibility.

SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor.

The recent emergence of the novel, pathogenic SARS-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in China and its rapid national and international spread pose a global health emergency. Cell entry of coronaviruses depends on binding of the viral spike (S) proteins to cellular receptors and on S protein priming by host cell proteases. Unravelling which cellular factors are used by SARS-CoV-2 for entry might provide insights into viral transmission and reveal therapeutic targets. Here, we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 uses the SARS-CoV receptor ACE2 for entry and the serine protease TMPRSS2 for S protein priming. A TMPRSS2 inhibitor approved for clinical use blocked entry and might constitute a treatment option. Finally, we show that the sera from convalescent SARS patients cross-neutralized SARS-2-S-driven entry. Our results reveal important commonalities between SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV infection and identify a potential target for antiviral intervention.

Enhanced SARS-CoV-2 entry via UPR-dependent AMPK-related kinase NUAK2.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) remodels the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to form replication organelles, leading to ER stress and unfolded protein response (UPR). However, the role of specific UPR pathways in infection remains unclear. Here, we found that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes marginal activation of signaling sensor IRE1α leading to its phosphorylation, clustering in the form of dense ER-membrane rearrangements with embedded membrane openings, and XBP1 splicing. By investigating the factors regulated by IRE1α-XBP1 during SARS-CoV-2 infection, we identified stress-activated kinase NUAK2 as a novel host-dependency factor for SARS-CoV-2, HCoV-229E, and MERS-CoV entry. Reducing NUAK2 abundance or kinase activity impaired SARS-CoV-2 particle binding and internalization by decreasing cell surface levels of viral receptors and viral trafficking likely by modulating the actin cytoskeleton. IRE1α-dependent NUAK2 levels were elevated in SARS-CoV-2-infected and bystander non-infected cells, promoting viral spread by maintaining ACE2 cell surface levels and facilitating virion binding to bystander cells.

A Multibasic Cleavage Site in the Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Is Essential for Infection of Human Lung Cells.

The pandemic coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 threatens public health worldwide. The viral spike protein mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells and harbors a S1/S2 cleavage site containing multiple arginine residues (multibasic) not found in closely related animal coronaviruses. However, the role of this multibasic cleavage site in SARS-CoV-2 infection is unknown. Here, we report that the cellular protease furin cleaves the spike protein at the S1/S2 site and that cleavage is essential for S-protein-mediated cell-cell fusion and entry into human lung cells. Moreover, optimizing the S1/S2 site increased cell-cell, but not virus-cell, fusion, suggesting that the corresponding viral variants might exhibit increased cell-cell spread and potentially altered virulence. Our results suggest that acquisition of a S1/S2 multibasic cleavage site was essential for SARS-CoV-2 infection of humans and identify furin as a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Binding of TMPRSS2-ERG to BAF Chromatin Remodeling Complexes Mediates Prostate Oncogenesis.

Chromosomal rearrangements resulting in the fusion of TMPRSS2, an androgen-regulated gene, and the ETS family transcription factor ERG occur in over half of prostate cancers. However, the mechanism by which ERG promotes oncogenic gene expression and proliferation remains incompletely understood. Here, we identify a binding interaction between ERG and the mammalian SWI/SNF (BAF) ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complex, which is conserved among other oncogenic ETS factors, including ETV1, ETV4, and ETV5. We find that ERG drives genome-wide retargeting of BAF complexes in a manner dependent on binding of ERG to the ETS DNA motif. Moreover, ERG requires intact BAF complexes for chromatin occupancy and BAF complex ATPase activity for target gene regulation. In a prostate organoid model, BAF complexes are required for ERG-mediated basal-to-luminal transition, a hallmark of ERG activity in prostate cancer. These observations suggest a fundamental interdependence between ETS transcription factors and BAF chromatin remodeling complexes in cancer.

PCIF1-mediated deposition of 5'-cap N6,2'-O-dimethyladenosine in ACE2 and TMPRSS2 mRNA regulates susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to be a major health problem worldwide. Due to the fast emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants, understanding the molecular mechanisms of viral pathogenesis and developing novel inhibitors are essential and urgent. Here, we investigated the potential roles of N6,2'-O-dimethyladenosine (m6Am), one of the most abundant modifications of eukaryotic messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNAs), in SARS-CoV-2 infection of human cells. Using genome-wide m6Am-exo-seq, RNA sequencing analysis, and Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 genome editing, we demonstrate that phosphorylated C-terminal domain (CTD)-interacting factor 1 (PCIF1), a cap-specific adenine N6-methyltransferase, plays a major role in facilitating infection of primary human lung epithelial cells and cell lines by SARS-CoV-2, variants of concern, and other coronaviruses. We show that PCIF1 promotes infection by sustaining expression of the coronavirus receptors angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) via m6Am-dependent mRNA stabilization. In PCIF1-depleted cells, both ACE2/TMPRSS2 expression and viral infection are rescued by re-expression of wild-type, but not catalytically inactive, PCIF1. These findings suggest a role for PCIF1 and cap m6Am in regulating SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility and identify a potential therapeutic target for prevention of infection.

Efficacy of host cell serine protease inhibitor MM3122 against SARS-CoV-2 for treatment and prevention of COVID-19.

We developed a novel class of peptidomimetic inhibitors targeting several host cell human serine proteases, including transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), matriptase, and hepsin. TMPRSS2 is a membrane-associated protease that is highly expressed in the upper and lower respiratory tracts and is utilized by SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses to proteolytically process their glycoproteins, enabling host cell entry, replication, and dissemination of new virus particles. We have previously shown that compound MM3122 exhibited subnanomolar potency against all three proteases and displayed potent antiviral effects against SARS-CoV-2 in a cell viability assay. Herein, we demonstrate that MM3122 potently inhibits viral replication in human lung epithelial cells and is also effective against the EG.5.1 variant of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, we evaluated MM3122 in a mouse model of COVID-19 and demonstrated that MM3122 administered intraperitoneally (IP) before (prophylactic) or after (therapeutic) SARS-CoV-2 infection had significant protective effects against weight loss and lung congestion and reduced pathology. Amelioration of COVID-19 disease was associated with a reduction in proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Prophylactic, but not therapeutic, administration of MM3122 also reduced virus titers in the lungs of SARS-CoV-2-infected mice. Therefore, MM3122 is a promising lead candidate small-molecule drug for the treatment and prevention of infections caused by SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses. IMPORTANCE: SARS-CoV-2 and other emerging RNA coronaviruses are a present and future threat in causing widespread endemic and pandemic infection and disease. In this paper, we have shown that the novel host cell protease inhibitor, MM3122, blocks SARS-CoV-2 viral replication and is efficacious as both a prophylactic and a therapeutic drug for the treatment of COVID-19 given intraperitoneally in mice. Targeting host proteins and pathways in antiviral therapy is an underexplored area of research, but this approach promises to avoid drug resistance by the virus, which is common in current antiviral treatments.

ACE2 acts as a novel regulator of TMPRSS2-catalyzed proteolytic activation of influenza A virus in airway cells.

The transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) activates the outer structural proteins of a number of respiratory viruses including influenza A virus (IAV), parainfluenza viruses, and various coronaviruses for membrane fusion. Previous studies showed that TMPRSS2 interacts with the carboxypeptidase angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a cell surface protein that serves as an entry receptor for some coronaviruses. Here, by using protease activity assays, we determine that ACE2 increases the enzymatic activity of TMPRSS2 in a non-catalytic manner. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ACE2 knockdown inhibits TMPRSS2-mediated cleavage of IAV hemagglutinin (HA) in Calu-3 human airway cells and suppresses virus titers 100- to 1.000-fold. Transient expression of ACE2 in ACE2-deficient cells increased TMPRSS2-mediated HA cleavage and IAV replication. ACE2 knockdown also reduced titers of MERS-CoV and prevented S cleavage by TMPRSS2 in Calu-3 cells. By contrast, proteolytic activation and multicycle replication of IAV with multibasic HA cleavage site typically cleaved by furin were not affected by ACE2 knockdown. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that ACE2-TMPRSS2 interaction requires the enzymatic activity of TMPRSS2 and the carboxypeptidase domain of ACE2. Together, our data identify ACE2 as a new co-factor or stabilizer of TMPRSS2 activity and as a novel host cell factor involved in proteolytic activation and spread of IAV in human airway cells. Furthermore, our data indicate that ACE2 is involved in the TMPRSS2-catalyzed activation of additional respiratory viruses including MERS-CoV.IMPORTANCEProteolytic cleavage of viral envelope proteins by host cell proteases is essential for the infectivity of many viruses and relevant proteases provide promising drug targets. The transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) has been identified as a major activating protease of several respiratory viruses, including influenza A virus. TMPRSS2 was previously shown to interact with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Here, we report the mechanistic details of this interaction. We demonstrate that ACE2 increases or stabilizes the enzymatic activity of TMPRSS2. Furthermore, we describe ACE2 involvement in TMPRSS2-catalyzed cleavage of the influenza A virus hemagglutinin and MERS-CoV spike protein in human airway cells. These findings expand our knowledge of the activation of respiratory viruses by TMPRSS2 and the host cell factors involved. In addition, our results could help to elucidate a physiological role for TMPRSS2.

Functional dissection of the spike glycoprotein S1 subunit and identification of cellular cofactors for regulation of swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus entry.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) is a novel porcine enteric coronavirus, and the broad interspecies infection of SADS-CoV poses a potential threat to human health. This study provides experimental evidence to dissect the roles of distinct domains within the SADS-CoV spike S1 subunit in cellular entry. Specifically, we expressed the S1 and its subdomains, S1A and S1B. Cell binding and invasion inhibition assays revealed a preference for the S1B subdomain in binding to the receptors on the cell surface, and this unknown receptor is not utilized by the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus. Nanoparticle display demonstrated hemagglutination of erythrocytes from pigs, humans, and mice, linking the S1A subdomain to the binding of sialic acid (Sia) involved in virus attachment. We successfully rescued GFP-labeled SADS-CoV (rSADS-GFP) from a recombinant cDNA clone to track viral infection. Antisera raised against S1, S1A, or S1B contained highly potent neutralizing antibodies, with anti-S1B showing better efficiency in neutralizing rSADS-GFP infection compared to anti-S1A. Furthermore, depletion of heparan sulfate (HS) by heparinase treatment or pre-incubation of rSADS-GFP with HS or constituent monosaccharides could inhibit SADS-CoV entry. Finally, we demonstrated that active furin cleavage of S glycoprotein and the presence of type II transmembrane serine protease (TMPRSS2) are essential for SADS-CoV infection. These combined observations suggest that the wide cell tropism of SADS-CoV may be related to the distribution of Sia or HS on the cell surface, whereas the S1B contains the main protein receptor binding site. Specific host proteases also play important roles in facilitating SADS-CoV entry.IMPORTANCESwine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) is a novel pathogen infecting piglet, and its unique genetic evolution characteristics and broad species tropism suggest the potential for cross-species transmission. The virus enters cells through its spike (S) glycoprotein. In this study, we identify the receptor binding domain on the C-terminal part of the S1 subunit (S1B) of SADS-CoV, whereas the sugar-binding domain located at the S1 N-terminal part of S1 (S1A). Sialic acid, heparan sulfate, and specific host proteases play essential roles in viral attachment and entry. The dissection of SADS-CoV S1 subunit's functional domains and identification of cellular entry cofactors will help to explore the receptors used by SADS-CoV, which may contribute to exploring the mechanisms behind cross-species transmission and host tropism.

The ecotin-like peptidase inhibitor of Trypanosoma cruzi prevents TMPRSS2-PAR2-TLR4 crosstalk downmodulating infection and inflammation.

Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a chronic pathology that affects the heart and/or digestive system. This parasite invades and multiplies in virtually all nucleated cells, using a variety of host cell receptors for infection. T. cruzi has a gene that encodes an ecotin-like inhibitor of serine peptidases, ISP2. We generated ISP2-null mutants (Δisp2) in T. cruzi Dm28c using CRISPR/Cas9. Epimastigotes of Δisp2 grew normally in vitro but were more susceptible to lysis by human serum compared to parental and ISP2 add-back lines. Tissue culture trypomastigotes of Δisp2 were more infective to human muscle cells in vitro, which was reverted by the serine peptidase inhibitors aprotinin and camostat, suggesting that host cell epitheliasin/TMPRSS2 is the target of ISP2. Pretreatment of host cells with an antagonist to the protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) or an inhibitor of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) selectively counteracted the increased cell invasion by Δisp2, but did not affect invasion by parental and add-back lines. The same was observed following targeted gene silencing of PAR2, TLR4 or TMPRSS2 in host cells by siRNA. Furthermore, Δisp2 caused increased tissue edema in a BALB/c mouse footpad infection model after 3 h differently to that observed following infection with parental and add-back lines. We propose that ISP2 contributes to protect T. cruzi from the anti-microbial effects of human serum and to prevent triggering of PAR2 and TLR4 in host cells, resulting in the modulation of host cell invasion and contributing to decrease inflammation during acute infection.

TMPRSS2 isoform 1 downregulation by G-quadruplex stabilization induces SARS-CoV-2 replication arrest.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 infection depends on the host cell factors angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, ACE2, and the transmembrane serinprotease 2, TMPRSS2. Potential inhibitors of these proteins would be ideal targets against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Our data opens the possibility that changes within TMPRSS2 can modulate the outcome during a SARS-CoV-2 infection. RESULTS: We reveal that TMPRSS2 acts not only during viral entry but has also an important role during viral replication. In addition to previous functions for TMPRSS2 during viral entry, we determined by specific downregulation of distinct isoforms that only isoform 1 controls and supports viral replication. G-quadruplex (G4) stabilization by chemical compounds impacts TMPRSS2 gene expression. Here we extend and in-depth characterize these observations and identify that a specific G4 in the first exon of the TMPRSS2 isoform 1 is particular targeted by the G4 ligand and affects viral replication. Analysis of potential single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) reveals that a reported SNP at this G4 in isoform 1 destroys the G4 motif and makes TMPRSS2 ineffective towards G4 treatment. CONCLUSION: These findings uncover a novel mechanism in which G4 stabilization impacts SARS-CoV-2 replication by changing TMPRSS2 isoform 1 gene expression.

DON/DRP-104 as potent serine protease inhibitors implicated in SARS-CoV-2 infection: Comparative binding modes with human TMPRSS2 and novel therapeutic approach.

Human transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is an important member of the type 2 transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) family with significant therapeutic markings. The search for potent TMPRSS2 inhibitors against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection with favorable tissue specificity and off-site toxicity profiles remains limited. Therefore, probing the anti-TMPRSS2 potential of enhanced drug delivery systems, such as nanotechnology and prodrug systems, has become compelling. We report the first in silico study of TMPRSS2 against a prodrug, [isopropyl(S)-2-((S)-2-acetamido-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)-propanamido)-6-diazo-5-oxo-hexanoate] also known as DRP-104 synthesized from 6-Diazo-5-oxo-l-norleucine (DON). We performed comparative studies on DON and DRP-104 against a clinically potent TMPRSS2 inhibitor, nafamostat, and a standard serine protease inhibitor, 4-(2-Aminoethyl) benzenesulfonyl fluoride (AEBSF) against TMPRSS2 and found improved TMPRSS2 inhibition through synergistic binding of the S1/S1' subdomains. Both DON and DRP-104 had better thermodynamic profiles than AEBSF and nafamostat. DON was found to confer structural stability with strong positive correlated inter-residue motions, whereas DRP-104 was found to confer kinetic stability with restricted residue displacements and reduced loop flexibility. Interestingly, the Scavenger Receptor Cysteine-Rich (SRCR) domain of TMPRSS2 may be involved in its inhibition mechanics. Two previously unidentified loops, designated X (270-275) and Y (293-296) underwent minimal and major structural transitions, respectively. In addition, residues 273-277 consistently transitioned to a turn conformation in all ligated systems, whereas unique transitions were identified for other transitioning residue groups in each TMPRSS2-inhibitor complex. Intriguingly, while both DON and DRP-104 showed similar loop transition patterns, DRP-104 preserved loop structural integrity. As evident from our systematic comparative study using experimentally/clinically validated inhibitors, DRP-104 may serve as a potent and novel TMPRSS2 inhibitor and warrants further clinical investigation.

Does vaping increase the likelihood of SARS-CoV-2 infection? Paradoxically yes and no.

Data on the relationship between electronic cigarettes (ECs) and SARS-CoV-2 infection are limited and contradictory. Our objectives were to investigate the impact of EC aerosols on SARS-CoV-2 infection of human bronchial epithelial cells and identify the causative chemical(s). Fully differentiated human bronchial epithelial tissues (hBETs) were exposed at the air-liquid interface (ALI) to aerosols produced from JUUL "Virginia Tobacco" and BLU ECs, as well as nicotine, propylene glycol (PG), vegetable glycerin (VG), and benzoic acid, and infection was then evaluated with SARS-CoV-2 pseudoparticles. Pseudoparticle infection of hBETs increased with aerosols produced from PG/VG, PG/VG plus nicotine, or BLU ECs; however, JUUL EC aerosols did not increase infection compared with controls. Increased infection in PG/VG alone was due to enhanced endocytosis, whereas increased infection in PG/VG plus nicotine or in BLU ECs was caused by nicotine-induced elevation of the aerosol's pH, which correlated with increased transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) activity. Notably, benzoic acid in JUUL aerosols mitigated the enhanced infection caused by PG/VG or nicotine, offering protection that lasted for at least 48 h after exposure. In conclusion, the study demonstrates that EC aerosols can impact susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection depending on their specific ingredients. PG/VG alone or PG/VG plus nicotine enhanced infection through different mechanisms, whereas benzoic acid in JUUL aerosols mitigated the increased infection caused by certain ingredients. These findings highlight the complex relationship between ECs and SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility, emphasizing the importance of considering the specific aerosol ingredients when evaluating the potential effects of ECs on infection risk.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Data on the relationship between electronic cigarettes (ECs) and SARS-CoV-2 infection are limited and contradictory. We investigated the impact of EC aerosols and their ingredients on SARS-CoV-2 infection of human bronchial epithelial cells. Our data show that specific ingredients in EC aerosols impact the susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Propylene glycol (PG)/vegetable glycerin (VG) alone or PG/VG plus nicotine enhanced infection through different mechanisms, whereas benzoic acid in JUUL aerosols mitigated the increased infection caused by these ingredients.

Effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin and naproxen) on inflammation-associated proteomic profiles in mouse plasma and prostate during TMPRSS2-ERG (fusion)-driven prostate carcinogenesis.

Recent preclinical studies have shown that the intake of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) aspirin and naproxen could be an effective intervention strategy against TMPRSS2-ERG fusion-driven prostate tumorigenesis. Herein, as a follow-up mechanistic study, employing TMPRSS2-ERG (fusion) positive tumors and plasma from TMPRSS2-ERG. Ptenflox/flox mice, we profiled the stage specific proteomic changes (focused on inflammatory circulating and prostate tissue/tumor-specific cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors/growth signaling-associated molecules) that contribute to prostate cancer (PCa) growth and progression in the TMPRSS2-ERG fusion-driven mouse model of tumorigenesis. In addition, the association of the protective effects of NSAIDs (aspirin 1400 ppm and naproxen 400 ppm) with the modulation of these specific molecular pathways was determined. A sandwich Elisa based membrane array-proteome profiler identifying 111 distinct signaling molecules was employed. Overall, the plasma and prostate tissue sample analyses identified 54 significant and differentially expressed cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors/growth signaling-associated molecules between PCa afflicted mice (TMPRSS2-ERG. Ptenflox/flox, age-matched noncancerous controls, NSAIDs-supplemented and no-drug controls). Bioinformatic analysis of the array outcomes indicated that the protective effect of NSAIDs was associated with reduced expression of (a) tumor promoting inflammatory molecules (M-CSF, IL-33, CCL22, CCL12, CX3CL1, CHI3L1, and CD93), (b) growth factors- growth signaling-associated molecules (Chemerin, FGF acidic, Flt-3 ligand, IGFBP-5, and PEDF), and (c) tumor microenvironment/stromal remodeling proteins MMP2 and MMP9. Overall, our findings corroborate the pathological findings that protective effects of NSAIDs in TMPSS2-ERG fusion-driven prostate tumorigenesis are associated with antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory effects and possible modulation of the immune cell enriched microenvironment.

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron entry is type II transmembrane serine protease-mediated in human airway and intestinal organoid models.

SARS-CoV-2 can enter cells after its spike protein is cleaved by either type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs), like TMPRSS2, or cathepsins. It is now widely accepted that the Omicron variant uses TMPRSS2 less efficiently and instead enters cells via cathepsins, but these findings have yet to be verified in more relevant cell models. Although we could confirm efficient cathepsin-mediated entry for Omicron in a monkey kidney cell line, experiments with protease inhibitors showed that Omicron (BA.1 and XBB1.5) did not use cathepsins for entry into human airway organoids and instead utilized TTSPs. Likewise, CRISPR-edited intestinal organoids showed that entry of Omicron BA.1 relied on the expression of the serine protease TMPRSS2 but not cathepsin L or B. Together, these data force us to rethink the concept that Omicron has adapted to cathepsin-mediated entry and indicate that TTSP inhibitors should not be dismissed as prophylactic or therapeutic antiviral strategy against SARS-CoV-2. IMPORTANCE Coronavirus entry relies on host proteases that activate the viral fusion protein, spike. These proteases determine the viral entry route, tropism, host range, and can be attractive drug targets. Whereas earlier studies using cell lines suggested that the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 has changed its protease usage, from cell surface type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs) to endosomal cathepsins, we report that this is not the case in human airway and intestinal organoid models, suggesting that host TTSP inhibition is still a viable prophylactic or therapeutic antiviral strategy against current SARS-CoV-2 variants and highlighting the importance of relevant human in vitro cell models.

The antiviral potential of the antiandrogen enzalutamide and the viral-androgen signaling interplay in seasonal coronaviruses.

The sex disparity in COVID-19 outcomes with males generally faring worse than females has been associated with the androgen-regulated expression of the protease TMPRSS2 and the cell receptor ACE2 in the lung and fueled interest in antiandrogens as potential antivirals. In this study, we explored enzalutamide, an antiandrogen used commonly to treat prostate cancer, as a potential antiviral against the human coronaviruses which cause seasonal respiratory infections (HCoV-NL63, -229E, and -OC43). Using lentivirus-pseudotyped and authentic HCoV, we report that enzalutamide reduced 229E and NL63 entry and infection in both TMPRSS2- and nonexpressing immortalized cells, suggesting a TMPRSS2-independent mechanism. However, no effect was observed against OC43. To decipher this distinction, we performed RNA-sequencing analysis on 229E- and OC43-infected primary human airway cells. Our results show a significant induction of androgen-responsive genes by 229E compared to OC43 at 24 and 72 h postinfection. The virus-mediated effect on AR-signaling was further confirmed with a consensus androgen response element-driven luciferase assay in androgen-depleted MRC-5 cells. Specifically, 229E induced luciferase-reporter activity in the presence and absence of the synthetic androgen mibolerone, while OC43 inhibited induction. These findings highlight a complex interplay between viral infections and androgen-signaling, offering insights for disparities in viral outcomes and antiviral interventions.

Mapping ACE2 and TMPRSS2 co-expression in human brain tissue: implications for SARS-CoV-2 neurological manifestations.

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) primarily targets respiratory cells, but emerging evidence shows neurological involvement, with the virus directly affecting neurons and glia. SARS-CoV-2 entry into a target cell requires co-expression of ACE2 (Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2) and TMPRSS2 (Trans membrane serine protease-2). Relevant literature on human neurological tissue is sparse and mostly focused on the olfactory areas. This prompted our study to map brain-wide expression of these entry proteins and assess age-related changes. The normal brain tissue samples were collected from cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, brain stem and cerebellum; and were divided into two groups - up to 40 years (n = 10) and above 40 years (n = 10). ACE2 and TMPRSS2 gene expression analysis was done using qRT-PCR and protein co-expression was seen by immunofluorescence. The ACE2 and TMPRSS2 gene expression was observed to be highest in hypothalamus and thalamus regions, respectively. Immunoreactivity for both ACE-2 and TMPRSS2 was observed in all examined brain regions, confirming the presence of these viral entry receptors. Co-localisation was maximum in hypothalamus. Our study did not find any trend related to different age groups. The expression of both these viral entry receptors suggests that normal human brain is susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, perhaps which could be related to the cognitive and neurological impairment that occur in patients.