A novel long non-coding RNA linc-93.2 participates in bisphenol induced oxidative stress and macrophage polarization in red common carp (Cyprinus carpio).

Previous studies show that bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogs induce oxidative stress and promote inflammatory response. However, the key molecules in regulating this process remain unclear. Here, we report significant inductive effects of BPA and bisphenol AF (BPAF) on a newly found long non-coding RNA linc-93.2 accompanied by oxidative stress and activation of pro-inflammatory pathways in treated fish and fish primary macrophages. Silencing linc-93.2 in fish primary macrophages in vitro or fish in vivo significantly promotes the expression of anti-oxidative stress-related genes and anti-inflammatory cytokines. This inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, showing cell status disruption towards to M2 polarization. Followed by exposure to BPA or BPAF, silencing linc-93.2 in vitro or in vivo significantly attenuates the increased production of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde level aroused by bisphenol treatment, possibly owing to the enhancement of total antioxidant capacity observed in cells and tissue after linc-93.2 knockdown. RNA-sequencing further revealed regulation of nuclear factor-kappa b (NF-κB) in linc-93.2's downstream network, combining with our previous observation on the upstream regulation of linc-93.2 via NF-κB, which together suggest a critical role of linc-93.2 in promoting NF-κB positive feedback loop that may be an important molecular event initiating the immunotoxicity of bisphenols.

Host-microbiota-parasite interactions in two wild sparid fish species, Diplodus annularis and Oblada melanura (Teleostei, Sparidae) over a year: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: The microbiota in fish external mucus is mainly known for having a role in homeostasis and protection against pathogens, but recent evidence suggests it is also involved in the host-specificity of some ectoparasites. In this study, we investigated the influence of seasonality and environmental factors on both fish external microbiota and monogenean gill ectoparasites abundance and diversity and assessed the level of covariations between monogenean and bacterial communities across seasons. To do so, we assessed skin and gill microbiota of two sparid species, Oblada melanura and Diplodus annularis, over a year and collected their specific monogenean ectoparasites belonging to the Lamellodiscus genus. RESULTS: Our results revealed that diversity and structure of skin and gill mucus microbiota were strongly affected by seasonality, mainly by the variations of temperature, with specific fish-associated bacterial taxa for each season. The diversity and abundance of parasites were also influenced by seasonality, with the abundance of some Lamellodiscus species significantly correlated to temperature. Numerous positive and negative correlations between the abundance of given bacterial genera and Lamellodiscus species were observed throughout the year, suggesting their differential interaction across seasons. CONCLUSIONS: The present study is one of the first to demonstrate the influence of seasonality and related abiotic factors on fish external microbiota over a year. We further identified potential interactions between gill microbiota and parasite occurrence in wild fish populations, improving current knowledge and understanding of the establishment of host-specificity.

Developing and adult reef fish show rapid light-induced plasticity in their visual system.

The visual capabilities of fish are optimized for their ecology and light environment over evolutionary time. Similarly, fish vision can adapt to regular changes in light conditions within their lifetime, e.g., ontogenetic or seasonal variation. However, we do not fully understand how vision responds to irregular short-term changes in the light environment, e.g., algal blooms and light pollution. In this study, we investigated the effect of short-term exposure to unnatural light conditions on opsin gene expression and retinal cell densities in juvenile and adult diurnal reef fish (convict surgeonfish; Acanthurus triostegus). Results revealed phenotypic plasticity in the retina across ontogeny, particularly during development. The most substantial differences at both molecular and cellular levels were found under constant dim light, while constant bright light and simulated artificial light at night had a lesser effect. Under dim light, juveniles and adults increased absolute expression of the cone opsin genes, sws2a, rh2c and lws, within a few days and juveniles also decreased densities of cones, inner nuclear layer cells and ganglion cells. These changes potentially enhanced vision under the altered light conditions. Thus, our study suggests that plasticity mainly comes into play when conditions are extremely different to the species' natural light environment, i.e., a diurnal fish in "constant night". Finally, in a rescue experiment on adults, shifts in opsin expression were reverted within 24 h. Overall, our study showed rapid, reversible light-induced changes in the retina of A. triostegus, demonstrating phenotypic plasticity in the visual system of a reef fish throughout life.

Immunity of the intestinal mucosa in teleost fish.

The paper presents the problem of intestinal mucosa immunity in teleost fish. The immunity of the intestinal mucosa in teleost fish depends on the elements and mechanisms with different organizational/structural and functional properties than in mammals. The organization of the elements of intestinal mucosal immunitya in these animals is associated with the presence of immune cells that fulfil the functions assigned to the induction and effector sites of mucosal immunity in mammals; they are located at various histological sites of the mucosa - in the lamina propria (LP) and in the surface epithelium. The presence of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) has not been demonstrated in teleost fish, and the terminology used in relation to the structure and function of the mucosa immunity components in teleost fish is inadequate. In this article, we review the knowledge of intestinal mucosal immunity in teleost fish, with great potential for knowledge and practical applications especially in the field of epidemiological safety. We discuss the organization and functional properties of the elements that determine this immunity, according to current data and taking into account the tissue definition and terminology adopted by the Society for Mucosal Immunology General Assembly (13th ICMI in Tokyo, 2007).

Prolactin and the evolution of male pregnancy.

Prolactin (PRL) is a multifunctional hormone of broad physiological importance, and is involved in many aspects of fish reproduction, including the regulation of live birth (viviparity) and both male and female parental care. Previous research suggests that PRL also plays an important reproductive role in syngnathid fishes (seahorses, pipefish and seadragons), a group with a highly derived reproductive strategy, male pregnancy - how the PRL axis has come to be co-opted for male pregnancy remains unclear. We investigated the molecular evolution and expression of the genes for prolactin and its receptor (PRLR) in an evolutionarily diverse sampling of syngnathid fishes to explore how the co-option of PRL for male pregnancy has impacted its evolution, and to clarify whether the PRL axis is also involved in regulating reproductive function in species with more rudimentary forms of male pregnancy. In contrast to the majority of teleost fishes, all syngnathid fishes tested carry single copies of PRL and PRLR that cluster genetically within the PRL1 and PRLRa lineages of teleosts, respectively. PRL1 gene expression in seahorses and pipefish is restricted to the pituitary, while PRLRa is expressed in all tissues, including the brood pouch of species with both rudimentary and complex brooding structures. Pituitary PRL1 expression remains stable throughout pregnancy, but PRLRa expression is specifically upregulated in the male brood pouch during pregnancy, consistent with the higher affinity of pouch tissues for PRL hormone during embryonic incubation. Finally, immunohistochemistry of brood pouch tissues reveals that both PRL1 protein and PRLRa and Na+/K+ ATPase-positive cells line the inner pouch epithelium, suggesting that pituitary-derived PRL1 may be involved in brood pouch osmoregulation during pregnancy. Our data provide a unique molecular perspective on the evolution and expression of prolactin and its receptor during male pregnancy, and provide the foundation for further manipulative experiments exploring the role of PRL in this unique form of reproduction.

Proteomic characterization of spontaneously regrowing spinal cord following injury in the teleost fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus, a regeneration-competent vertebrate.

In adult mammals, spontaneous repair after spinal cord injury (SCI) is severely limited. By contrast, teleost fish successfully regenerate injured axons and produce new neurons from adult neural stem cells after SCI. The molecular mechanisms underlying this high regenerative capacity are largely unknown. The present study addresses this gap by examining the temporal dynamics of proteome changes in response to SCI in the brown ghost knifefish (Apteronotus leptorhynchus). Two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D DIGE) was combined with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) to collect data during early (1 day), mid (10 days), and late (30 days) phases of regeneration following caudal amputation SCI. Forty-two unique proteins with significant differences in abundance between injured and intact control samples were identified. Correlation analysis uncovered six clusters of spots with similar expression patterns over time and strong conditional dependences, typically within functional families or between isoforms. Significantly regulated proteins were associated with axon development and regeneration; proliferation and morphogenesis; neuronal differentiation and re-establishment of neural connections; promotion of neuroprotection, redox homeostasis, and membrane repair; and metabolism or energy supply. Notably, at all three time points examined, significant regulation of proteins involved in inflammatory responses was absent.

Development of dim-light vision in the nocturnal reef fish family Holocentridae. II: Retinal morphology.

Ontogenetic changes in the habitats and lifestyles of animals are often reflected in their visual systems. Coral reef fishes start life in the shallow open ocean but inhabit the reef as juveniles and adults. Alongside this change in habitat, some species also change lifestyles and become nocturnal. However, it is not fully understood how the visual systems of nocturnal reef fishes develop and adapt to these significant ecological shifts over their lives. Therefore, we used a histological approach to examine visual development in the nocturnal coral reef fish family, Holocentridae. We examined 7 representative species spanning both subfamilies, Holocentrinae (squirrelfishes) and Myripristinae (soldierfishes). Pre-settlement larvae showed strong adaptation for photopic vision with high cone densities and had also started to develop a multibank retina (i.e. multiple rod layers), with up to two rod banks present. At reef settlement, holocentrids showed greater adaptation for scotopic vision, with higher rod densities and higher summation of rods onto the ganglion cell layer. By adulthood, they had well-developed scotopic vision with a highly rod-dominated multibank retina comprising 5-17 rod banks and enhanced summation of rods onto the ganglion cell layer. Although the ecological demands of the two subfamilies were similar throughout their lives, their visual systems differed after settlement, with Myripristinae showing more pronounced adaptation for scotopic vision than Holocentrinae. Thus, it is likely that both ecology and phylogeny contribute to the development of the holocentrid visual system.

Development of dim-light vision in the nocturnal reef fish family Holocentridae. I: Retinal gene expression.

Developmental changes to the visual systems of animals are often associated with ecological shifts. Reef fishes experience a change in habitat between larval life in the shallow open ocean to juvenile and adult life on the reef. Some species also change their lifestyle over this period and become nocturnal. While these ecological transitions are well documented, little is known about the ontogeny of nocturnal reef fish vision. Here, we used transcriptomics to investigate visual development in 12 representative species from both subfamilies, Holocentrinae (squirrelfishes) and Myripristinae (soldierfishes), in the nocturnal coral reef fish family, Holocentridae. Results revealed that the visual systems of holocentrids are initially well adapted to photopic conditions with pre-settlement larvae having high levels of cone opsin gene expression and a broad cone opsin gene repertoire (8 genes). At reef settlement, holocentrids started to invest more in their scotopic visual system, and compared with adults, showed upregulation of genes involved in cell differentiation/proliferation. By adulthood, holocentrids had well developed scotopic vision with high levels of rod opsin gene expression, reduced cone opsin gene expression and repertoire (1-4 genes) and upregulated phototransduction genes. Finally, although the two subfamilies shared similar ecologies across development, their visual systems diverged after settlement, with Myripristinae investing more in scotopic vision than Holocentrinae. Hence, both ecology and phylogeny are likely to determine the development of the holocentrid visual system.

Surviving in the fish gut: Comparative inhibitory capacities against the host proteinases in cestodes of the genus Proteocephalus.

Currently, little is known about inhibitory substances enabling tapeworms to settle in fish intestines thereby avoiding proteolysis. Contrary to previous studies with certain host-parasite pairs, this research compares the inhibitory capacities in three tapeworm species of the same genus Proteocephalus from four different fishes (P. torulosus from dace and zope, P. sagittus from stone loach and P. cernuae from ruffe). The tapeworm extracts studied significantly reduced the activity of commercial trypsin (although to a lesser degree than the synthetic inhibitor of serine proteinases PMSF), displaying clear inter-specific variation in worms' inhibitory ability. We also measured the proteolytic activity of the host intestinal mucosa exposed to tapeworm extracts which served as inhibitors. Based on per cent inhibition values, all tapeworm extracts significantly suppressed the mucosal proteolytic activity, with marked differences between certain host-parasite pairs. SDS-PAGE electrophoresis of the incubation media and extracts detected in each tapeworm species 20-36 protein bands with apparent molecular weights from 10-12 to 312.5 kDa, mostly below 50 kDa. The incubation medium and extract of each parasite shared one to six bands ranging from 12 to 35 kDa, depending on its species, with only four bands common for two or more species. The band profiles suggest that in various Proteocephalus species inhibitory capacities against host proteinases can be ensured by different proteins.

Gill area explains deviations from body size-metabolic rate relationship in teleost fishes.

Whether gill area constrains fish metabolism through oxygen limitation is a debated topic. Here, the authors provide insights into this question by analysing mass-specific metabolic rates across 44 teleost fishes extracted from FishBase. They explore whether species deviations from metabolic rates predicted by body mass can be explained by species gill area. They show that the gill area explains c. 26%-28% of species-level deviations from mass-specific metabolic rates. Their findings suggest that gill area might indeed be one of the factors limiting metabolic rate in fishes.

Seasonal differences in thermal stress susceptibility of diploid and triploid brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Teleostei, Pisces).

Many physiological processes of teleost fish show periodicity due to intrinsic rhythms. It may be hypothesized that also susceptibility to thermal stress differs seasonally. To shed more light on this problem the following experiment was conducted. Diploid and triploid Salvelinus fontinalis were kept at an acclimation temperature of 9°C and at a natural photoperiod typical for the Northern Hemisphere during their entire live. During eight different periods of the year, different subgroups were exposed to a 32 day lasting thermal stress of 20°C. Rate of fish maintaining equilibrium, daily growth rate, condition factor, viscerosomatic index and hepato-somatic index were measured. Complementary mRNA expression of genes characterizing growth (GHR1, GHR2), proteolysis (Protreg, Protα5), stress (Hsp47, Hsp90) and respiratory energy metabolism (ATPJ52) was determined. Seasonal differences in thermal stress susceptibility of 2n and 3n S. fontinalis were detected. It was highest from September to December and moderate from January to March. During the remaining period of the year, susceptibility to thermal stress was minimal. Increased thermal stress susceptibility was related to decreased rates of fish maintaining equilibrium, decreased growth rates, reduction of viscera and liver mass and changes in mRNA expression of genes characterizing proteolysis, growth, respiratory energy metabolism and stress. The differences in seasonal stress susceptibility were minor between 2n and 3n S. fontinalis. The data are valuable for ecology and fish culture to identify periods when animals are most susceptible to thermal stress.

Integrin Signaling in the Central Nervous System in Animals and Human Brain Diseases.

The integrin family is involved in various biological functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation and migration, and also in the pathogenesis of disease. Integrins are multifunctional receptors that exist as heterodimers composed of α and ß subunits and bind to various ligands, including extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins; they are found in many animals, not only vertebrates (e.g., mouse, rat, and teleost fish), but also invertebrates (e.g., planarian flatworm, fruit fly, nematodes, and cephalopods), which are used for research on genetics and social behaviors or as models for human diseases. In the present paper, we describe the results of a phylogenetic tree analysis of the integrin family among these species. We summarize integrin signaling in teleost fish, which serves as an excellent model for the study of regenerative systems and possesses the ability for replacing missing tissues, especially in the central nervous system, which has not been demonstrated in mammals. In addition, functions of astrocytes and reactive astrocytes, which contain neuroprotective subpopulations that act in concert with the ECM proteins tenascin C and osteopontin via integrin are also reviewed. Drug development research using integrin as a therapeutic target could result in breakthroughs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain injury in mammals.

Schwann cell precursors generate sympathoadrenal system during zebrafish development.

The autonomic portion of the peripheral nervous system orchestrates tissue homeostasis through direct innervation of internal organs, and via release of adrenalin and noradrenalin into the blood flow. The developmental mechanisms behind the formation of autonomic neurons and chromaffin cells are not fully understood. Using genetic tracing, we discovered that a significant proportion of sympathetic neurons in zebrafish originates from Schwann cell precursors (SCPs) during a defined period of embryonic development. Moreover, SCPs give rise to the main portion of the chromaffin cells, as well as to a significant proportion of enteric and other autonomic neurons associated with internal organs. The conversion of SCPs into neuronal and chromaffin cells is ErbB receptor dependent, as the pharmacological inhibition of the ErbB pathway effectively perturbed this transition. Finally, using genetic ablations, we revealed that SCPs producing neurons and chromaffin cells migrate along spinal motor axons to reach appropriate target locations. This study reveals the evolutionary conservation of SCP-to-neuron and SCP-to-chromaffin cell transitions over significant growth periods in fish and highlights relevant cellular-genetic mechanisms. Based on this, we anticipate that multipotent SCPs might be present in postnatal vertebrate tissues, retaining the capacity to regenerate autonomic neurons and chromaffin cells.

Cardiorespiratory adjustments to chronic environmental warming improve hypoxia tolerance in European perch (Perca fluviatilis).

Aquatic hypoxia will become increasingly prevalent in the future as a result of eutrophication combined with climate warming. While short-term warming typically constrains fish hypoxia tolerance, many fishes cope with warming by adjusting physiological traits through thermal acclimation. Yet, little is known about how such adjustments affect tolerance to hypoxia. We examined European perch (Perca fluviatilis) from the Biotest enclosure (23°C, Biotest population), a unique ∼1 km2 ecosystem artificially warmed by cooling water from a nuclear power plant, and an adjacent reference site (16-18°C, reference population). Specifically, we evaluated how acute and chronic warming affect routine oxygen consumption rate (MO2,routine) and cardiovascular performance in acute hypoxia, alongside assessment of the thermal acclimation of the aerobic contribution to hypoxia tolerance (critical O2 tension for MO2,routine: Pcrit) and absolute hypoxia tolerance (O2 tension at loss of equilibrium; PLOE). Chronic adjustments (possibly across lifetime or generations) alleviated energetic costs of warming in Biotest perch by depressing MO2,routine and cardiac output, and by increasing blood O2 carrying capacity relative to reference perch acutely warmed to 23°C. These adjustments were associated with improved maintenance of cardiovascular function and MO2,routine in hypoxia (i.e. reduced Pcrit). However, while Pcrit was only partially thermally compensated in Biotest perch, they had superior absolute hypoxia tolerance (i.e. lowest PLOE) relative to reference perch irrespective of temperature. We show that European perch can thermally adjust physiological traits to safeguard and even improve hypoxia tolerance during chronic environmental warming. This points to cautious optimism that eurythermal fish species may be resilient to the imposition of impaired hypoxia tolerance with climate warming.

Adult neurogenesis in the central nervous system of teleost fish: from stem cells to function and evolution.

Adult neurogenesis, the generation of functional neurons from adult neural stem cells in the central nervous system (CNS), is widespread, and perhaps universal, among vertebrates. This phenomenon is more pronounced in teleost fish than in any other vertebrate taxon. There are up to 100 neurogenic sites in the adult teleost brain. New cells, including neurons and glia, arise from neural stem cells harbored both in neurogenic niches and outside these niches (such as the ependymal layer and parenchyma in the spinal cord, respectively). At least some, but not all, of the stem cells are of astrocytic identity. Aging appears to lead to stem cell attrition in fish that exhibit determinate body growth but not in those with indeterminate growth. At least in some areas of the CNS, the activity of the neural stem cells results in additive neurogenesis or gliogenesis - tissue growth by net addition of cells. Mathematical and computational modeling has identified three factors to be crucial for sustained tissue growth and correct formation of CNS structures: symmetric stem cell division, cell death and cell drift due to population pressure. It is hypothesized that neurogenesis in the CNS is driven by continued growth of corresponding muscle fibers and sensory receptor cells in the periphery to ensure a constant ratio of peripheral versus central elements. This 'numerical matching hypothesis' can explain why neurogenesis has ceased in most parts of the adult CNS during the evolution of mammals, which show determinate growth.

The visual ecology of Holocentridae, a nocturnal coral reef fish family with a deep-sea-like multibank retina.

The visual systems of teleost fishes usually match their habitats and lifestyles. Since coral reefs are bright and colourful environments, the visual systems of their diurnal inhabitants have been more extensively studied than those of nocturnal species. In order to fill this knowledge gap, we conducted a detailed investigation of the visual system of the nocturnal reef fish family Holocentridae. Results showed that the visual system of holocentrids is well adapted to their nocturnal lifestyle with a rod-dominated retina. Surprisingly, rods in all species were arranged into 6-17 well-defined banks, a feature most commonly found in deep-sea fishes, that may increase the light sensitivity of the eye and/or allow colour discrimination in dim light. Holocentrids also have the potential for dichromatic colour vision during the day with the presence of at least two spectrally different cone types: single cones expressing the blue-sensitive SWS2A gene, and double cones expressing one or two green-sensitive RH2 genes. Some differences were observed between the two subfamilies, with Holocentrinae (squirrelfish) having a slightly more developed photopic visual system than Myripristinae (soldierfish). Moreover, retinal topography of both ganglion cells and cone photoreceptors showed specific patterns for each cell type, likely highlighting different visual demands at different times of the day, such as feeding. Overall, their well-developed scotopic visual systems and the ease of catching and maintaining holocentrids in aquaria, make them ideal models to investigate teleost dim-light vision and more particularly shed light on the function of the multibank retina and its potential for dim-light colour vision.

Immunological memory in teleost fish.

Immunological memory can be regarded as the key aspect of adaptive immunity, i.e. a specific response to first contact with an antigen, which in mammals is determined by the properties of T, B and NK cells. Re-exposure to the same antigen results in a more rapid response of the activated specific cells, which have a unique property that is the immunological memory acquired upon first contact with the antigen. Such a state of immune activity is also to be understood as related to "altered behavior of the immune system" due to genetic alterations, presumably maintained independently of the antigen. It also indicates a possible alternative mechanism of maintaining the immune state at a low level of the immune response, "directed" by an antigen or dependent on an antigen, associated with repeated exposure to the same antigen from time to time, as well as the concept of innate immune memory, associated with epigenetic reprogramming of myeloid cells, i.e. macrophages and NK cells. Studies on Teleostei have provided evidence for the presence of immunological memory determined by T and B cells and a secondary response stronger than the primary response. Research has also demonstrated that in these animals macrophages and NK-like cells (similar to mammalian NK cells) are able to respond when re-exposed to the same antigen. Regardless of previous reports on immunological memory in teleost fish, many reactions and mechanisms related to this ability require further investigation. The very nature of immunological memory and the activity of cells involved in this process, in particular macrophages and NK-like cells, need to be explained. This paper presents problems associated with adaptive and innate immune memory in teleost fish and characteristics of cells associated with this ability.

The evolutionary puzzle solution for the origins of the partial loss of the Cτ2 exon in notothenioid fishes.

Cryonotothenioidea is the main group of fishes that thrive in the extremely cold Antarctic environment, thanks to the acquisition of peculiar morphological, physiological and molecular adaptations. We have previously disclosed that IgM, the main immunoglobulin isotype in teleosts, display typical cold-adapted features. Recently, we have analyzed the gene encoding the heavy chain constant region (CH) of the IgT isotype from the Antarctic teleost Trematomus bernacchii (family Nototheniidae), characterized by the near-complete deletion of the CH2 domain. Here, we aimed to track the loss of the CH2 domain along notothenioid phylogeny and to identify its ancestral origins. To this end, we obtained the IgT gene sequences from several species belonging to the Antarctic families Nototheniidae, Bathydraconidae and Artedidraconidae. All species display a CH2 remnant of variable size, encoded by a short Cτ2 exon, which retains functional splicing sites and therefore is included in the mature transcript. We also considered representative species from the three non-Antarctic families: Eleginopsioidea (Eleginops maclovinus), Pseudaphritioidea (Pseudaphritis urvillii) and Bovichtidae (Bovichtus diacanthus and Cottoperca gobio). Even though only E. maclovinus, the sister taxa of Cryonotothenioidea, shared the partial loss of Cτ2, the other non-Antarctic notothenioid species displayed early molecular signatures of this event. These results shed light on the evolutionary path that underlies the origins of this remarkable gene structural modification.

Species interactions alter the selection of thermal environment in a coral reef fish.

Increasing ocean temperatures and the resulting poleward range shifts of species has highlighted the importance of a species preferred temperature and thermal range in shaping ecological communities. Understanding the temperatures preferred and avoided by individual species, and how these are influenced by species interactions is critical in predicting the future trajectories of populations, assemblages, and ecosystems. Using an automated shuttlebox system, we established the preferred temperature and upper and lower threshold temperatures (i.e., avoided temperatures) of a common coral reef fish, the black-axil chromis, Chromis atripectoralis. We then investigated how the presence of conspecifics, heterospecifics (Neopomacentrus bankieri), or a predator (Cephalopholis spiloparaea) influenced the selection of these temperatures. Control C. atripectoralis preferred 27.5 ± 1.0 °C, with individuals avoiding temperatures below 23.5 ± 0.9 °C and above 29.7 ± 0.7 °C. When associating with either conspecifics or heterospecifics, C. atripectoralis selected significantly lower temperatures (conspecifics: preferred = 21.2 ± 1.4 °C, lower threshold = 18.1 ± 0.8 °C; heterospecifics: preferred = 21.1 ± 1.1 °C, lower threshold = 19.2 ± 0.9 °C), but not higher temperatures (conspecifics: preferred = 28.9 ± 1.2 °C, upper threshold = 30.8 ± 0.9 °C; heterospecifics: preferred = 29.7 ± 1.1 °C, upper threshold = 31.4 ± 0.8 °C). The presence of the predator, however, had a significant effect on both lower and upper thresholds. Individual C. atripectoralis exposed themselves to temperatures ~ 5.5 °C cooler or warmer (lower threshold: 18.6 ± 0.5 °C, upper threshold: 35.2 ± 0.5 °C) than control fish before moving into the chamber containing the predator. These findings demonstrate how behavioural responses due to species interactions influence the thermal ecology of a tropical reef fish; however, there appears to be limited scope for individuals to tolerate higher temperatures unless faced with the risk of predation.

GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition of Dahlgren cells electrical activity in the olive flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus.

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. We investigated its potential role as a neurotransmitter in the neuroendocrine Dahlgren cell population of the caudal neurosecretory system (CNSS) of the flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. The application of GABA in vitro resulted in a decrease in electrical activity of Dahlgren cells, followed by an increase of the number of silent cells, together with a decreased firing frequency of all three activity patterns (tonic, phasic, bursting). GABAA receptor agonist etomidate decreased Dahlgren cell firing activity, in a similar way to GABA. The response to GABA was blocked by the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline. GABAA receptor gamma2 subunit (Gabrg2) and chloride channel (Clcn2) mRNA expression were significantly upregulated in the CNSS after GABA superfusion. These data suggest that GABA may modulate CNSS activity in vivo mediated by GABAA receptors.