Relationships Between Early Maladaptive Schemas and Emotional States in Individuals With Sexual Convictions.

This study seeks to add to the existing knowledge and available literature on schema therapy elements in forensic inpatient samples. Early maladaptive schemas and emotional states were assessed in Dutch individuals with sexual convictions and compared to individuals with nonsexual violent convictions. Self-ratings of the Young Schema Questionnaire and the Schema Mode Inventory of 95 patients with either convictions for child sexual abuse (N = 30), sexual violence against adults (N = 34), and nonsexual violent convictions (N = 31) were examined using one-way multivariate ANOVAs. Regardless of victim type, forensic patients convicted for sexual offending, and patients with convictions for nonsexual violent offending, seem to make equal use of specific maladaptive cognitive schemas and schema modes during mandated inpatient care. Other studies have shown that people with sexual offense histories are typically characterized by insecure attachment, overvigilance towards women, or a child-like self-concept. Our study indicates that forensic patient in Dutch mandated care may be qualitatively different from typical patients with sexual offense histories and that Dutch patients with violent or sexual offense histories are more similar than they are dissimilar.

Dual Systems Imbalance as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Exposure to Violence and Violent Offending Risk: Delineating Direct Victimization and Witnessed Violence.

Exposure to violence is a robust risk factor associated with violent offending. Furthermore, exposure to violence can lead to dysfunctional cognitive development, and this may underpin the relationship between exposure to violence and violent offending risk. However, there is a dearth of research that has examined the independent effects of direct victimization and witnessed violence in this regard, particularly as it pertains to dual systems imbalance as a cognitive mediator of either or both forms of exposure to violence. This study sought to address this gap in the literature by examining the effects of direct victimization and witnessed violence on violent offending risk and examining dual systems imbalance as a mediator of these relationships. The Pathways to Desistance data were analyzed. Generalized structural equation modeling was used to assess the direct and indirect effects of interest. The results indicated that only experiencing direct victimization was associated with an increased risk of violent offending at follow-up but not witnessed violence. Furthermore, dual systems imbalance significantly mediated the relationship between direct victimization and violent offending risk. The results indicate that justice-involved youth who have experienced direct victimization should be prioritized for intervention in order to reduce violent recidivism risk and that treatment should focus on improving cognitive processes pertaining to impulse control and risk-seeking.

Adverse childhood experiences, mental illness, HIV and offending among female inmates in Durban, South Africa.

Background: Childhood adversities and adult trauma are common among female inmates. Associations have been documented with childhood adversities and mental illness, personality disorders, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and violent offending. However, no such study had been conducted in South Africa (SA), despite the high prevalence of HIV and trauma in SA. Aim: To measure the prevalence of childhood adversities and adult trauma; and to determine if there is a relationship between childhood adversities, mental illness, personality disorders, HIV and violent offending among female inmates. Setting: The study was conducted at the largest correctional centre in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Methods: This cross-sectional, descriptive study randomly recruited 126 female inmates. The World Health Organization's Adverse Childhood Experiences- International Questionnaire (WHO ACE-IQ) was used to measure childhood adversities; the Structured Clinical Interview for the Diagnostics and Statistical Manual-5 Research Version (SCID 5-RV) was used to diagnose mental illness; and a structured questionnaire was used to measure adult trauma. Human immunodeficiency virus data was confirmed from prison medical records. Results: Elevated rates of individual childhood adversities and adult trauma were found. Associations were found between cumulative childhood adversities and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), alcohol use disorder, substance use disorder, borderline personality disorder, and HIV. Conclusion: Female inmates are a highly traumatised population. Prison mental health services should provide trauma-informed and trauma-focussed care to improve inmates' mental health outcomes and decrease recidivism. Contribution: This study contributes to the emerging literature on adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and their associations among incarcerated female populations, in a low- and middle-income, South African setting.

Association of intellectual disability with violent and sexual crime and victimization: a population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Intellectual disability (ID) is associated with violent and sexual offending and victimization, but the importance of neuropsychiatric comorbidity and severity of disability remains unclear. METHODS: In a register-based cohort study of people born in Sweden 1980-1991 (n = 1 232 564), we investigated associations of mild and moderate/severe ID with any, violent and sexual crimes, and with assault victimization, stratified by comorbid autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We defined ID by attendance at a special school or registered diagnosis and obtained data on criminal convictions and injuries or deaths due to assaults from nationwide registers until end of 2013. RESULTS: Compared to people without ID, autism or ADHD, men and women with mild or moderate/severe ID and comorbid ADHD had elevated risks of violent crimes [range of hazard ratios (HRs) 4.4-10.4] and assault victimization (HRs 2.0-7.7). Women with mild ID without comorbidities or with comorbid autism also had elevated risks of violent crimes and victimization (HRs 1.8-4.6) compared to women without ID, autism or ADHD. The relative risks of sexual offending and victimization were elevated in men and women with ID without comorbidities (HRs 2.6-12.7). The highest risks for sexual offending in men (HRs 9.4-11.0) and for sexual assault victimization in women (HRs 11.0-17.1) related to ID and comorbid ADHD. CONCLUSIONS: The elevated risk of violent offending and assault victimization in people with ID is largely explained by comorbid ADHD, whereas ID is independently associated with sexual crimes and victimization, even though absolute risks are low.

Do insecure adult attachment styles mediate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and violent behavior?

Attachment theory has played an important role in attempts to understand the "cycle of violence," where maltreated children are at increased risk for perpetrating violence later in life. However, little is known empirically about whether adult attachment insecurity in close relationships may partly explain the link between childhood maltreatment and violent behavior. This study aimed to address this gap using data from a prospective longitudinal study of documented childhood abuse and neglect cases and demographically matched controls (ages 0-11 years), who were followed into adulthood and interviewed (N = 892). Participants completed the Relationship Scales Questionnaire assessing adult attachment styles at mean age 39.54. Criminal arrest data were used to determine arrests for violence after the assessment of attachment through mean age 50.54. There were significant direct paths from childhood maltreatment and adult attachment insecurity to violent arrests after attachment measurement. Attachment insecurity partly explained the higher levels of violence in individuals with maltreatment histories. Analyses of maltreatment subtypes and attachment styles revealed that attachment anxiety appeared to mediate paths between neglect and physical abuse and later violence. There were no significant indirect paths from neglect or physical abuse to violence via attachment avoidance. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Alcohol use disorder as a risk factor for violent offending and reoffending in delinquent women with substance use disorders.

Female gender is generally less associated with aggressive behavior and violent offending than male gender. Therefore, most studies on violence and (re-)offending include only men. However, it is crucial to better understand pathways to female offending in order to enable efficient psychological interventions and risk assessment in women. Well-established risk factors for aggressive behavior include alcohol use disorder (AUD) and other substance use disorders (SUDs). We retrospectively analyzed the association of AUD and other SUDs with violent offending and reoffending in a sample of female offenders (N = 334) in a forensic treatment facility. In total, 72% of the patients with an AUD had committed a violent crime leading to admission, whereas only 19% of those with other SUDs had. Over 70% of the participants with AUD had a family history of AUD, and over 83% had experienced physical violence in adulthood. Rates of AUD and other SUDs did not differ regarding aggressive behavior during inpatient treatment, while the risk of reoffending with a violent crime after discharge was nine times higher in patients with an AUD than in those with other SUDs. Our results indicate that AUD is a significant risk factor for violent offending and reoffending in women. A familial background of AUD and a history of physical abuse increase the probability for both AUD and offending, suggesting a possible interaction between (epi-)genetic and environmental factors. The comparable rates of aggression during inpatient treatment in patients with AUD and other SUDs indicate that abstinence is a protective factor for violence.

Partners in crime: A 21-year cohort comparison of people who commit serious crimes together with those who act alone.

BACKGROUND: Perpetrators who act together violently occur frequently in police and media discussions, but are rarely the focus of forensic psychiatric research. AIMS: We aimed to characterise people who act together when committing a serious crime and to map the frequency of such crimes over 21 years in Finland. METHODS: Data for the study were retrieved from the national database of forensic psychiatric examinations for the period 2000-2020, with reports on file for nearly all people charged with serious criminal offences in the country. Index cases were defined as those with two or more perpetrators attacking a single victim; people who acted alone were comparison cases. Sex and age at the time of the crime were extracted together with all diagnoses listed in the reports. RESULTS: Seventy-five multiple perpetrator groups (MPG) were identified, accounting for 165 individuals whose reports were compared with 2494 single-perpetrator (SPR) reports. Most group and solitary offenders were male (87%: 86%, respectively). The index offence was more likely to be homicide among the group perpetrators (mean 1.12) than the solitary offenders (mean 0.83). Proportionately more of the group offenders had personality disorder or substance use disorders (antisocial personality disorder MPG 49%: SPR 32%; any personality disorder MPG 89%: SPR 76%); alcohol (MPG 79%: SPR 69%; cannabis MPG 15%: SPR 9%). By contrast, psychosis was about twice as common among the solitary offenders (MPG 12%; SPR 26%). CONCLUSIONS: The number of group-perpetrated crimes has not increased, according to these Finnish forensic psychiatric report data of 2000-2020, but the relatively high prevalence among them of personality and substance use disorders is a constant. Understanding psychiatric disorders as factors in both leading to and avoiding violent conflicts may help plan new approaches to further diminish group violence.

What determines violent behavior in men? Predicting physical, psychological, and sexual violent offending based on classification and regression tree analysis.

Despite compelling evidence that victimization and offending co-occur, it remains unclear what types of victimization are linked to specific forms of perpetration. Here we examined the relationship between physical, psychological, and sexual violence with respect to influencing variables including mental health, risk-taking behaviors, and coping strategies. Data from 5385 men were collected as part of an epidemiological study on violence experience. A classification and regression tree analysis identified the main predictors of violence perpetration and classified violent offending into high- and low-risk groups. Results indicate that violence is best predicted by previous exposure to violence and polyvictimization. Physical violence is best predicted by prior exposure to physical violence and this is further influenced by the frequency of and the age at which violence was experienced. Drug use was a strong predictor of physical and psychological violence. The latter is best predicted by a history of polyvictimization, the severity and the originator of violence. Sexual violence is strongly predicted by one's sexual violence experience. Other factors such as demographic characteristics are less predictive. Our results may contribute to the development of early prevention and intervention approaches that account for different risk factors. The significance of violence exposure suggest that intervention measures must focus on victims of early and prolonged experience of violence. On the strength of the link between drug use and violence, exposure to violence should be considered in drug prevention and intervention and vice versa.

The Impact of PTSD-Linked Strain Sensitivity on Violent Offending: Differences in Effects During Adolescence Versus Early Adulthood.

OBJECTIVES: Investigate the relevance of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-linked strain sensitivity associated with exposure to violence for predicting violence outcomes among juvenile offenders during adolescence and early adulthood. METHODS: This study uses the Pathways to Desistance data and to test relevant relationships. Two series of negative binomial regression models were estimated to test hypotheses, one corresponding to each period of the life course. RESULTS: Results indicated that witnessed violence interacted with PTSD status in adolescence, indicating that individuals afflicted with PTSD demonstrated heightened sensitivity to this strain, manifested in increased violent offending. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that witnessed violence may act as a trigger during adolescence, resulting in juvenile offenders with PTSD responding with violence. This may have treatment implications for individuals suffering from PTSD.

Outcome of serious violent offenders with psychotic illness and cognitive disorder dealt with by the New South Wales criminal justice system.

BACKGROUND: The few studies of the recidivism by people with psychotic illness and cognitive disorder who are convicted of serious violent offences and sentenced by the courts. METHOD: Re-imprisonment data were obtained for 661 individuals convicted of serious non-lethal violent offences in the District Courts of New South Wales in the years 2006 and 2007. Rates of re-imprisonment of offenders known to psychotic illness or cognitive disorder (intellectual disability or acquired brain injury) was compared to those not known to have those conditions. A survival analysis was performed controlling for the effects of male sex, having a report by a mental health professional at the initial sentencing and receiving a custodial sentence for the initial offence. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the overall likelihood of further imprisonment between those with psychotic disorder (53.7%), those with cognitive disorder (50.7%) or among those with neither condition (45.2%; χ2 = 2.22, p = 0.33). A Kaplan-Meier analysis found that people with a psychotic disorder were returned to custody earlier than those not known to have psychosis ( p = 0.002). People with psychosis spent a non-significantly greater time in custody (mean 477 days) than those with a cognitive disorder (mean 334 days) or among those with neither condition (mean 348 days) (Mann-Whitney Z-score = 1.5, η2 = 0.003, p value = 0.13). For the entire sample of 661 offenders, those who received non-custodial sentences for their initial offences had a lower likelihood of spending any time in custody in the follow-up period. CONCLUSION: The likelihood of returning to custody of sentenced violent offenders with psychotic illness or cognitive disorder is higher than that of released forensic patients in New South Wales followed up for a similar period. The results suggest an opportunity to improve the outcome of offenders with psychosis by better treatment and rehabilitation.

Pervasive influence of maternal and paternal criminal offending on early childhood development: a population data linkage study.

BACKGROUND: Parental criminal offending is an established risk factor for offending among offspring, but little evidence is available indicating the impact of offending on early childhood functioning. We used data from a large Australian population cohort to determine associations between exposure to parental offending and a range of developmental outcomes at age 5 years. METHOD: Multi-generation data in 66 477 children and their parents from the New South Wales Child Development Study were combined using data linkage. Logistic and multinomial regressions tested associations between any and violent offending histories of parents (fathers, mothers, or both parents) obtained from official records, and multiple measures of early childhood developmental functioning (social, emotional-behavioural, cognitive, communication and physical domains) obtained from the teacher-reported 2009 Australian Early Development Census. RESULTS: Parental offending conferred significantly increased risk of vulnerability on all domains, particularly the cognitive domain. Greater risk magnitudes were observed for offending by both parents and by mothers than by fathers, and for violent than for any offending. For all parental offending exposures, vulnerability on multiple domains (where medium to large effects were observed) was more likely than on a single domain (small to medium effects). Relationships remained significant and of comparable magnitude following adjustment for sociodemographic covariates. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of parental offending on early childhood developmental outcomes is pervasive, with the strongest effects on functioning apparent when both parents engage in violent offending. Supporting affected families in early childhood might mitigate both early developmental vulnerability and the propensity for later delinquency among these offspring.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms mediate the relationship between substance misuse and violent offending among female prisoners.

PURPOSE: Despite empirical evidence suggesting complex associations between psychological trauma, substance misuse, and violent offending, there is a dearth of research investigating these associations in the female prison population. METHODS: A cross-sectional, interview-format questionnaire study was undertaken with a sample of 89 female prisoners. History of traumatic events, DSM-5 PTSD, drug use, and offending behaviour were assessed. RESULTS: Traumatic experiences had occurred in 97.8 % of the sample, while 60.5 % met criteria for a PTSD diagnosis. The majority of the sample (70.8 %) reported using illicit drugs, and 59.6 % had committed at least one violent offence. History of drug use was significantly correlated with trauma, PTSD status, and violent offending. A mediation analysis identified an indirect effect of PTSD symptoms on the relationship between history of drug use and violent offending. CONCLUSIONS: The result of our mediation analysis further highlights the importance of addressing PTSD symptoms and substance misuse, among female offenders, to help prevent violent offending.

Risk Factors and Risk-Based Protective Factors for Violent Offending: A Study of Young Victorians.

PURPOSE: The present study aims to examine risk factors and risk-based and interactive protective factors for violent offending in a group of 437 young Australians. METHODS: Participants were recruited into the study when they were in Grade 5 (10-11 years) and followed up almost annually until young adulthood (18-19 years). Measures of violent offending, risk and protective factors, and demographics were obtained through a modification of the Communities That Care youth survey. The data collected enabled identification of groups of students at-risk of violent offending according to drug use, low family socioeconomic status, and antisocial behavior. RESULTS: Results showed that there were very few associations between the risk factors and risk-based protective factors measured in this study (e.g., belief in the moral order, religiosity, peer recognition for prosocial involvement, attachment to parents, low commitment to school, and poor academic performance) and later self-reported violent offending. There were no statistically significant interactive protective factors. CONCLUSIONS: Further longitudinal analyses with large sample sizes are needed to examine risk factors and risk-based protective factors and interactive protective factors in at-risk groups. The findings support the need for multi-faceted prevention and early intervention approaches that target multiple aspects of youth's lives.

The relationship between maltreatment victimisation and sexual and violent offending: differences between adolescent offenders with and without intellectual disability.

BACKGROUND: Juveniles with intellectual disabilities (ID) are more often victims of maltreatment and more often perpetrators of abuse than juveniles without ID. Because previous research on the relationship between maltreatment victimisation and subsequent offending behaviour was primarily performed in non-disabled samples, the present study aimed to examine differences between juvenile offenders with and without ID in the relationship between maltreatment victimisation and sexual and violent offending. METHOD: The sample consisted of juvenile offenders with ID (n = 102) and without ID (n = 526) who appeared before the courts for a criminal act and for whom the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment (WSJCA) was completed. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the strength of the relationship between maltreatment and offending, Fisher's z tests were calculated to assess the significance of the differences between the two groups in the strength of the correlations, and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the unique contribution of maltreatment victimisation to the prediction of violent and sexual offending. RESULTS: Seventy per cent of the juvenile offenders with ID and 42% of the juvenile offenders without ID had experienced abuse and/or neglect. Both sexual and violent offending were more common in juvenile offenders with ID than in juvenile offenders without ID. Moreover, the relationship between different forms of maltreatment and sexual offending was stronger in juvenile offenders with ID than in juvenile offenders without ID. CONCLUSIONS: Given the high rates of abuse and neglect victimisation and the strength of the association between victimisation and sexual offending, especially in juvenile offenders with ID, treatment should focus on potential trauma and other problems associated with the abuse.

VARIETIES OF VIOLENT BEHAVOR.

There is an implicit assumption of homogeneity across violent behaviors and offenders in the criminology literature. Arguing against this assumption, I draw on three distinct literatures [child abuse and neglect (CAN) and violence, violence and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and CAN and PTSD] to provide a rationale for an examination of varieties of violent behaviors. I use data from my prospective cohort design study of the long-term consequences of CAN to define three varieties of violent offenders using age of documented cases of CAN, onset of PTSD, and first violent arrest in a temporally correct manner [CAN → to violence, CAN → PTSD → violence (PTSD first), and CAN → violence → PTSD (violence first)], and a fourth variety, violence only. The results illustrate meaningful heterogeneity in violent behavior and different developmental patterns and characteristics. There are three major implications: First, programs and policies that target violence need to recognize the heterogeneity and move away from a "one-size-fits-all" approach. Second, violence prevention policies and programs that target abused and neglected children are warranted, given the prominent role of CAN in the backgrounds of these violent offenders. Third, criminologists and others interested in violence need to attend to the role of PTSD, which is present in about one fifth (21 percent) of these violent offenders, and not relegate the study of these offenders to the psychiatric and psychological literatures.

Trends in violent offending among people with schizophrenia: A 10-year ecological study.

Violent offending committed by people with schizophrenia has been a public concern. The present study aims to examine the incidence of violent offending among people with schizophrenia and its correlations with mental health resources and economic factors. In this study, an examination of violent offending by people with schizophrenia and those identified as not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder (NCRMD) between 2010 and 2019 in China's Hunan province was undertaken. Principal component analysis (PCA) and regression analyses were used to explore the association of violent offending in people with schizophrenia and those identified as NCRMD with violent offending in the general population, mental health medical resources, and provincial GDP. Between 2010 and 2019, a total of 2,093 people with schizophrenia committed violent offending in Hunan province, including 1,374 (65.6%) cases identified as NCRMD. Over the period, the incidence of violent offending in people with schizophrenia and those identified as NCRMD has been decreasing. The incidences were positively correlated with the incidence of violent offending in the general population and negatively associated with mental health resources and provincial GDP. These findings may be valuable in helping to develop strategies for violence prevention and risk management for people with schizophrenia.

Evaluating social rehabilitation of aggression for persons with Acquired Brain Injury: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: Social rehabilitation of aggression following an Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) is critically important for persons with ABI due to increased vulnerability of criminal behaviour related to post-injury changes in functioning. This review presents findings from studies that evaluated aggression interventions in both community and forensic populations of people with ABI. METHODS: We searched PsycINFO, EMBASE, SocINDEX, CINAHL and Medline databases for studies published between 1st January 2000 and 15th October 2023. RESULTS: There were 15 studies (14 community-based, one forensic) that met inclusion criteria. Pharmacological management (6) was largely ineffective and anger management interventions (6) presented with inconsistent effectiveness. Emotion regulation (1) may be effective for externalised aggression. Both mindfulness and transcranial direct current stimulation (1) were effective, and the results of a forensic peer group approach (1) were not tested for statistical significance. There was variability in the measurement of aggression, injury severity, and cognitive impairment. CONCLUSIONS: Whilst community interventions for aggression in persons with ABI are prevalent, findings for effectiveness have been mixed and there is a paucity of evaluated interventions in forensic samples. Further research is needed to unravel the complex interplay of factors contributing to aggression and develop effective social rehabilitation for persons with ABI.

Social rehabilitation is critical following an Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) due to increased risk of displaying challenging behaviours, such as aggression, that may significantly reduce an individual's quality of life.The current review highlights a lack of suitable interventions targeting aggression for individuals with ABI that account for injury-related impairments which impact capacity to engage in intervention.Findings emphasise the need to develop appropriate and relevant social rehabilitation interventions for aggression in ABI populations, particularly forensic populations, to prevent negative outcomes.

Stress, Schizophrenia, and Violence: A Machine Learning Approach.

This study employs machine learning algorithms to examine the causes for engaging in violent offending in individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Data were collected from 370 inpatients at the Centre for Inpatient Forensic Therapy, Zurich University Hospital of Psychiatry, Switzerland. Based on findings of the general strain theory and using logistic regression and machine learning algorithms, it was analyzed whether accumulation and type of stressors in the inpatients' history influenced the severity of an offense. A higher number of stressors led to more violent offenses, and five types of stressors were identified as being highly influential regarding violent offenses. Our findings suggest that an accumulation of stressful experiences in the course of life and certain types of stressors might be particularly important in the development of violent offending in individuals suffering from schizophrenia spectrum disorders. A better understanding of risk factors that lead to violent offenses should be helpful for the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies for patients at risk and could thus potentially reduce the prevalence of violent offenses.

Discrimination in Context: Examining Neighborhood-Level Variation in the Incidence and Adverse Effects of Perceived Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Among Chicago Youth.

A growing body of research links interpersonal racial and ethnic discrimination to adverse youth outcomes. Yet, studies examining the relevance of neighborhood context for discrimination are sparse. This study examines neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of perceived racial and ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms, suicidal behavior, violent behavior, and substance use. Hierarchical regression models on a sample of 1333 African American and Hispanic youth (52.44% female; x̄ = 13.03 years, SD = 3.25 at wave 1) residing in 238 Chicago neighborhoods from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods indicated little to no neighborhood-level variation in the incidence and impact of discrimination. Findings suggest that the experience of discrimination among youth of color is ubiquitous.

Psychiatric disorders and comorbidity in a Spanish sample of prisoners at the end of their sentence: Prevalence rates and associations with criminal history.

Introduction: This study examined, for the first time, the prevalence of mental disorders and comorbidities among inmates who were about to be released, and their association with criminal history. Methods: A Spanish sample of 140 prisoners at the end of their sentence was recruited from an occupational program. Psychiatric disorders were determined according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria. Bivariate analyses followed by multivariate regression models were conducted to identify significant variables for repeat incarceration and violent offending. Results: The lifetime prevalence of Axis I disorders was 81.4%, with substance use disorders (SUD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) being the most common diagnoses (51.4 and 31.4%, respectively). The current prevalence of Axis I disorders was 59.0%, including learning disorders (38.6%), ADHD (16.4%), and SUD (5.71%) among the most frequent syndromes. Thirty-six (26.5%) participants met criteria for a current Axis II disorder, which commonly was an antisocial personality disorder (12.5%). The majority of the sample (60.8%) suffered from two or more comorbid disorders during their lifetime, although the current prevalence fell to 23.3%. Childhood ADHD increased the number of imprisonments, while inmates convicted of a violent crime were more likely to present a learning disorder. Having a lifetime diagnosis of SUD or multiple psychiatric disorders appeared to be associated with both repeat incarceration and violent offending. Conclusion: Given the high rate of mental disorders still present among subjects completing prison sentences and the challenges they may encounter to benefit from vocational programs, our results suggest that appropriate psychiatric care should be provided during imprisonment and after release to facilitate their community reintegration.