Immunology of Kidney Disease.

The immune system and the kidneys are closely related. Immune components mediate acute kidney disease and are crucial to the progression of chronic kidney disease. Beyond its pathogenic functions, the immune system supports immunological homeostasis in healthy kidneys. The kidneys help maintain immune equilibrium by removing metabolic waste products and toxins, thereby limiting local and systemic inflammation. In this review, we describe the close relationship between the immune system and the kidneys. We discuss how the imbalance in the immune response can be deleterious to the kidneys and how immunomodulation can be important in preventing end-stage renal disease. In addition, recent tools such as in silico platforms and kidney organoids can help unveil the relationship between immune cells and kidney homeostasis.

Chimeric efferocytic receptors improve apoptotic cell clearance and alleviate inflammation.

Our bodies turn over billions of cells daily via apoptosis and are in turn cleared by phagocytes via the process of "efferocytosis." Defects in efferocytosis are now linked to various inflammatory diseases. Here, we designed a strategy to boost efferocytosis, denoted "chimeric receptor for efferocytosis" (CHEF). We fused a specific signaling domain within the cytoplasmic adapter protein ELMO1 to the extracellular phosphatidylserine recognition domains of the efferocytic receptors BAI1 or TIM4, generating BELMO and TELMO, respectively. CHEF-expressing phagocytes display a striking increase in efferocytosis. In mouse models of inflammation, BELMO expression attenuates colitis, hepatotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity. In mechanistic studies, BELMO increases ER-resident enzymes and chaperones to overcome protein-folding-associated toxicity, which was further validated in a model of ER-stress-induced renal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Finally, TELMO introduction after onset of kidney injury significantly reduced fibrosis. Collectively, these data advance a concept of chimeric efferocytic receptors to boost efferocytosis and dampen inflammation.

PEBP1 Wardens Ferroptosis by Enabling Lipoxygenase Generation of Lipid Death Signals.

Ferroptosis is a form of programmed cell death that is pathogenic to several acute and chronic diseases and executed via oxygenation of polyunsaturated phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) by 15-lipoxygenases (15-LO) that normally use free polyunsaturated fatty acids as substrates. Mechanisms of the altered 15-LO substrate specificity are enigmatic. We sought a common ferroptosis regulator for 15LO. We discovered that PEBP1, a scaffold protein inhibitor of protein kinase cascades, complexes with two 15LO isoforms, 15LO1 and 15LO2, and changes their substrate competence to generate hydroperoxy-PE. Inadequate reduction of hydroperoxy-PE due to insufficiency or dysfunction of a selenoperoxidase, GPX4, leads to ferroptosis. We demonstrated the importance of PEBP1-dependent regulatory mechanisms of ferroptotic death in airway epithelial cells in asthma, kidney epithelial cells in renal failure, and cortical and hippocampal neurons in brain trauma. As master regulators of ferroptotic cell death with profound implications for human disease, PEBP1/15LO complexes represent a new target for drug discovery.

Onconephrology: The intersections between the kidney and cancer.

Onconephrology is a new subspecialty of nephrology that recognizes the important intersections of kidney disease with cancer. This intersection takes many forms and includes drug-induced nephrotoxicity, electrolyte disorders, paraneoplastic glomerulonephritis, and the interactions of chronic kidney disease with cancer. Data clearly demonstrate that, when patients with cancer develop acute or chronic kidney disease, outcomes are inferior, and the promise of curative therapeutic regimens is lessened. This highlights the imperative for collaborative care between oncologists and nephrologists in recognizing and treating kidney disease in patients with cancer. In response to this need, specific training programs in onconephrology as well as dedicated onconephrology clinics have appeared. This comprehensive review covers many of the critical topics in onconephrology, with a focus on acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, drug-induced nephrotoxicity, kidney disease in stem cell transplantation, and electrolyte disorders in patients with cancer.

RIPK4 promotes oxidative stress and ferroptotic death through the downregulation of ACSM1.

One of the most critical axes for cell fate determination is how cells respond to excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS)-oxidative stress. Extensive lipid peroxidation commits cells to death via a distinct cell death paradigm termed ferroptosis. However, the molecular mechanism regulating cellular fates to distinct ROS remains incompletely understood. Through siRNA against human receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIPK) family members, we found that RIPK4 is crucial for oxidative stress and ferroptotic death. Upon ROS induction, RIPK4 is rapidly activated, and the kinase activity of RIPK4 is indispensable to induce cell death. Specific ablation of RIPK4 in kidney proximal tubules protects mice from acute kidney injury induced by cisplatin and renal ischemia/reperfusion. RNA sequencing revealed the dramatically decreased expression of acyl-CoA synthetase medium-chain (ACSM) family members induced by cisplatin treatment which is compromised in RIPK4-deficient mice. Among these ACSM family members, suppression of ACSM1 strongly augments oxidative stress and ferroptotic cell death with induced expression of ACS long-chain family member 4, an important component for ferroptosis execution. Our lipidome analysis revealed that overexpression of ACSM1 leads to the accumulation of monounsaturated fatty acids, attenuation of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFAs) production, and thereby cellular resistance to ferroptosis. Hence, knockdown of ACSM1 resensitizes RIPK4 KO cells to oxidative stress and ferroptotic death. In conclusion, RIPK4 is a key player involved in oxidative stress and ferroptotic death, which is potentially important for a broad spectrum of human pathologies. The link between the RIPK4-ASCM1 axis to PUFAs and ferroptosis reveals a unique mechanism to oxidative stress-induced necrosis and ferroptosis.

Gene regulation in regeneration after acute kidney injury.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common condition associated with significant morbidity, mortality, and cost. Injured kidney tissue can regenerate after many forms of AKI. However, there are no treatments in routine clinical practice to encourage recovery. In part, this shortcoming is due to an incomplete understanding of the genetic mechanisms that orchestrate kidney recovery. The advent of high-throughput sequencing technologies and genetic mouse models has opened an unprecedented window into the transcriptional dynamics that accompany both successful and maladaptive repair. AKI recovery shares similar cell-state transformations with kidney development, which can suggest common mechanisms of gene regulation. Several powerful bioinformatic strategies have been developed to infer the activity of gene regulatory networks by combining multiple forms of sequencing data at single-cell resolution. These studies highlight not only shared stress responses but also key changes in gene regulatory networks controlling metabolism. Furthermore, chromatin immunoprecipitation studies in injured kidneys have revealed dynamic epigenetic modifications at enhancer elements near target genes. This review will highlight how these studies have enhanced our understanding of gene regulation in injury response and regeneration.

Effect of Delayed Remote Ischemic Preconditioning on Acute Kidney Injury and Outcomes in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) has 2 time windows for organ protection: acute and delayed. Previous studies have mainly focused on the organoprotective effects of acute RIPC. We aimed to determine whether delayed RIPC can reduce the occurrence of acute kidney injury (AKI) and postoperative complications in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. METHODS: This prospective, single-center, double-blind, randomized controlled trial involved 509 patients at high risk for AKI who were scheduled for elective cardiac surgery requiring cardiopulmonary bypass. Patients were randomized to receive RIPC (4 cycles of 5-minute inflation and 5-minute deflation on 1 upper arm with a blood pressure cuff) 24 hours before surgery or a sham condition (control group) that was induced by 4 cycles of 5-minute inflation to a pressure of 20 mm Hg followed by 5-minute cuff deflation. The primary end point was the incidence of AKI within the prior 7 days after cardiac surgery. The secondary end points included renal replacement therapy during hospitalization, change in urinary biomarkers of AKI and markers of myocardial injury, duration of intensive care unit stay and mechanical ventilation, and occurrence of nonfatal myocardial infarction, stroke, and all-cause mortality by day 90. RESULTS: A total of 509 patients (mean age, 65.2±8.2 years; 348 men [68.4%]) were randomly assigned to the RIPC group (n=254) or control group (n=255). AKI was significantly reduced in the RIPC group compared with the control group (69/254 [27.2%] versus 90/255 [35.3%]; odds ratio, 0.68 [95% CI, 0.47-1.00]; P=0.048). There were no significant between-group differences in the secondary end points of perioperative myocardial injury (assessed by the concentrations of cardiac troponin T, creatine kinase myocardial isoenzyme, and NT-proBNP [N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide]), duration of stay in the intensive care unit and hospital, and occurrence of nonfatal myocardial infarction, stroke, and all-cause mortality by day 90. CONCLUSIONS: Among high-risk patients undergoing cardiac surgery, delayed RIPC significantly reduced the occurrence of AKI. REGISTRATION: URL: https://www.chictr.org.cn; Unique identifier: ChiCTR2000035568.

SGLT2 Inhibitors: The Sweet Success for Kidneys.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2 inhibitors) were originally developed as antidiabetic agents, with cardiovascular (CV) outcome trials demonstrating improved CV outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). Secondary analyses of CV outcome trials and later dedicated kidney outcome trials consistently reported improved kidney-related outcomes independent of T2D status and across a range of kidney function and albuminuria. Importantly, SGLT2 inhibitors are generally safe and well tolerated, with clinical trials and real-world analyses demonstrating a decrease in the risk of acute kidney injury. The kidney protective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors generally extend across different members of the class, possibly on the basis of hemodynamic, metabolic, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic mechanisms. In this review, we summarize the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on kidney outcomes in diverse patient populations.

Screening single-cell trajectories via continuity assessments for cell transition potential.

Advances in single-cell sequencing and data analysis have made it possible to infer biological trajectories spanning heterogeneous cell populations based on transcriptome variation. These trajectories yield a wealth of novel insights into dynamic processes such as development and differentiation. However, trajectory analysis relies on an assumption of trajectory continuity, and experimental limitations preclude some real-world scenarios from meeting this condition. The current lack of assessment metrics makes it difficult to ascertain if/when a given trajectory deviates from continuity, and what impact such a divergence would have on inference accuracy is unclear. By analyzing simulated breaks introduced into in silico and real single-cell data, we found that discontinuity caused precipitous drops in the accuracy of trajectory inference. We then generate a simple scoring algorithm for assessing trajectory continuity, and found that continuity assessments in real-world cases of intestinal stem cell development and CD8 + T cells differentiation efficiently identifies trajectories consistent with empirical knowledge. This assessment approach can also be used in cases where a priori knowledge is lacking to screen a pool of inferred lineages for their adherence to presumed continuity, and serve as a means for weighing higher likelihood trajectories for validation via empirical studies, as exemplified by our case studies in psoriatic arthritis and acute kidney injury. This tool is freely available through github at qingshanni/scEGRET.

Application Potential of Extracellular Vesicles Derived From Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Renal Diseases.

The high prevalence and complex etiology of renal diseases already impose a heavy disease burden on patients and society. In certain kidney diseases such as acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease, current treatments are limited to slowing rather than stabilizing or reversing disease progression. Therefore, it is crucial to study the pathological mechanisms of kidney disease and discover new therapeutic targets and effective therapeutic drugs. As cell-free therapeutic strategies are continually being developed, extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC-EVs) have emerged as a hot topic for research in the field of renal diseases. Studies have demonstrated that MSC-EVs not only reproduce the therapeutic effects of MSCs but also localize to damaged kidney tissue. Compared to MSCs, MSC-EVs have several advantages, including ease of preservation, low immunogenicity, an inability to directly form tumors, and ease of artificial modification. Exploring the detailed mechanisms of MSC-EVs by developing standardized culture, isolation, purification, and drug delivery strategies will help facilitate their clinical application in kidney diseases. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of studies about MSC-EVs in kidney diseases and discuss their limitations at the human nephrology level.

PRMT4 interacts with NCOA4 to inhibit ferritinophagy in cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury.

Cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) is commonly seen in the clinical practice, and ferroptosis, a type of non-apoptotic cell death, plays a pivotal role in it. Previous studies suggested that protein arginine methyltransferase 4 (PRMT4) was incorporated in various bioprocesses, but its role in renal injuries has not been investigated. Our present study showed that PRMT4 was highly expressed in renal proximal tubular cells, and it was downregulated in cisplatin-induced AKI. Besides, genetic disruption of PRMT4 exacerbated, while its overexpression attenuated, cisplatin-induced redox injuries in renal proximal epithelia. Mechanistically, our work showed that PRMT4 interacted with NCOA4 to inhibit ferritinophagy, a type of selective autophagy favoring lipid peroxidation to accelerate ferroptosis. Taken together, our study demonstrated that PRMT4 interacted with NCOA4 to attenuate ferroptosis in cisplatin-induced AKI, suggesting that PRMT4 might present as a new therapeutic target for cisplatin-related nephropathy.

HIF-1α induced FGF18 alleviates renal ischemia/reperfusion injury via YAP.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a devastating clinical condition characterized by an abrupt loss of renal function. The pathophysiology of AKI involves diverse processes and elements, of which survival and regeneration have been established to be significant hallmarks. And early studies have confirmed the fundamental role of FGFs in the regulation of AKI pathology, although the association between FGF18 and AKI still remains elusive. Our study demonstrates a substantial up-regulation of FGF18 in the renal tubules of mice subjected to ischemia. Notably, targeted overexpression of FGF18 effectively mitigates the impairment of kidney function induced by AKI. Mechanistically, FGF18 facilitates cell proliferation and anti-apoptosis in RTECs by enhancing the expression of YAP and facilitating its translocation to the nucleus. Aside from that, we also discovered that the substantial expression of FGF18 under ischemic conditions is HIF-1α dependent. This study aims to uncover the inherent mechanism behind the beneficial effects of FGF18 in attenuating AKI. By doing so, it aims to offer novel insights into the development of therapeutic strategies for AKI.

m6A demethylase FTO transcriptionally activated by SP1 improves ischemia reperfusion-triggered acute kidney injury by activating Ambra1/ULK1-mediated autophagy.

Ischemia reperfusion (I/R) was considered as one of main causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). However, the exact mechanism remains unclear. Here, this study aimed to investigate the role and mechanism of the m6A demethylase fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) protein in I/R-induced AKI. HK-2 cells and SD rats were utilized to establish hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) or I/R induced AKI models. The changes of RNAs and proteins were quantified using RT-qPCR, western blot, and immunofluorescence assays, respectively. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were assessed by CCK-8 and flow cytometry. Interactions between molecules were investigated using RIP, ChIP, Co-IP, RNA pull-down, and dual luciferase reporter assays. Global m6A quantification was evaluated by kits. TUNEL and HE staining were employed for histopathological examinations. Oxidative stress-related indicators and renal function were determined using ELISA assays. The FTO expression was downregulated in H/R-induced HK-2 cells and renal tissues from I/R-induced rats. Overexpression of FTO improved the cell viability but repressed apoptosis and oxidative stress in H/R-treated HK-2 cells, as well as enhanced renal function and alleviated kidney injury in I/R rats. Notably, the FTO overexpression significantly increased autophagy-related LC3 and ULK1 levels. When autophagy was inhibited, the protective effects of FTO in AKI were diminished. Notably, Ambra1, a crucial regulator of autophagy, was repressed in H/R-induced HK-2 cells. However, the FTO overexpression restored the Ambra1 expression by reducing m6A modification of its mRNA. SP1, acting as an upstream transcription factor, directly interacts with the FTO promoter to enhance FTO expression. Knockdown of SP1 or Ambra1 suppressed the beneficial effects of FTO upregulation on autophagy and oxidative stress injury in H/R-stimulated cells. FTO, transcriptionally activated by SP1, promoted autophagy by upregulating Ambra1/ULK1 signaling, thereby inhibiting oxidative stress and kidney injury. These findings may provide some novel insights for AKI treatment.

Hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor alleviates heatstroke-induced acute kidney injury by activating BNIP3-mediated mitophagy.

Hypoxia-induced inflammation and apoptosis are important pathophysiological features of heat stroke-induced acute kidney injury (HS-AKI). Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a key protein that regulates cell adaptation to hypoxia. HIF-prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor (HIF-PHI) stabilizes HIF to increase cell adaptation to hypoxia. Herein, we reported that HIF-PHI pretreatment significantly improved renal function, enhanced thermotolerance, and increased the survival rate of mice in the context of HS. Moreover, HIF-PHI could alleviate HS-induced mitochondrial damage, inflammation, and apoptosis in renal tubular epithelial cells (RTECs) by enhancing mitophagy in vitro and in vivo. By contrast, mitophagy inhibitors Mdivi-1, 3-MA, and Baf-A1 reversed the renoprotective effects of HIF-PHI. Mechanistically, HIF-PHI protects RTECs from inflammation and apoptosis by enhancing Bcl-2 adenovirus E18 19-kDa-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3)-mediated mitophagy, while genetic ablation of BNIP3 attenuated HIF-PHI-induced mitophagy and abolished HIF-PHI-mediated renal protection. Thus, our results indicated that HIF-PHI protects renal function by upregulating BNIP3-mediated mitophagy to improve HS-induced inflammation and apoptosis of RTECs, suggesting HIF-PHI as a promising therapeutic agent to treat HS-AKI.

Tolerogenic CD11c+dendritic cells regulate CD4+Tregs in replacing delayed ischemic preconditioning to alleviate ischemia-reperfusion acute kidney injury.

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is one of the primary clinical causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). The key to IRI lies in immune-inflammatory damage, where dendritic cells (DCs) play a central role in eliciting immune responses within the context of inflammation induced by ischemia-reperfusion. Our previous study has confirmed that delayed ischemic preconditioning (DIPC) can reduce the kidney injury by mediating DCs to regulate T-cells. However, the clinical feasibility of DIPC is limited, as pre-clamping of the renal artery is not applicable for the prevention and treatment of ischemia-reperfusion acute kidney injury (I/R-AKI) in clinical patients. Therefore, the infusion of DCs as a substitute for DIPC presents a more viable strategy for preventing renal IRI. In this study, we further evaluated the impact and mechanism of infused tolerogenic CD11c+DCs on the kidneys following IRI by isolating bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and establishing an I/R-AKI model after pre-infusion of DCs. Renal function was significantly improved in the I/R-AKI mouse model after pre-infused with CD11c+DCs. The pro-inflammatory response and oxidative damage were reduced, and the levels of T helper 2 (Th2) cells and related anti-inflammatory cytokines were increased, which was associated with the reduction of autologous DCs maturation mediated by CD11c+DCs and the increase of regulatory T-cells (Tregs). Next, knocking out CD11c+DCs, we found that the reduced immune protection of tolerogenic CD11c+DCs reinfusion was related to the absence of own DCs. Together, pre-infusion of tolerogenic CD11c+DCs can replace the regulatory of DIPC on DCs and T-cells to alleviate I/R-AKI. DC vaccine is expected to be a novel avenue to prevent and treat I/R-AKI.

Role of the CCL20/CCR6 axis in tubular epithelial cell injury: Kidney-specific translational insights from acute kidney injury to chronic kidney disease.

This study investigated the role of the axis involving chemokine receptor 6 (CCR6) and its ligand chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20 (CCL20) in acute kidney disease (AKD) using an ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) model. The model was established by clamping the unilateral renal artery pedicle of C57BL/6 mice for 30 min, followed by evaluation of CCL20/CCR6 expression at 4 weeks post-IRI. In vitro studies were conducted to examine the effects of hypoxia and H2 O2 -induced oxidative stress on CCL20/CCR6 expression in kidney tissues of patients with AKD and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Tubular epithelial cell apoptosis was more severe in C57BL/6 mice than in CCL20 antibody-treated mice, and CCR6, NGAL mRNA, and IL-8 levels were higher under hypoxic conditions. CCL20 blockade ameliorated apoptotic damage in a dose-dependent manner under hypoxia and reactive oxygen species injury. CCR6 expression in IRI mice indicated that the disease severity was similar to that in patients with the AKD phenotype. Morphometry of CCL20/CCR6 expression revealed a higher likelihood of CCR6+ cell presence in CKD stage 3 patients than in stage 1-2 patients. Kidney tissues of patients with CKD frequently contained CCL20+ cells, which were positively correlated with interstitial inflammation. CCL20/CCR6 levels were increased in fibrotic kidneys at 4 and 8 weeks after 5/6 nephrectomy. These findings suggest that modulating the CCL20/CCR6 pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy for managing the progression of AKD to CKD.

JMJD3 activation contributes to renal protection and regeneration following acute kidney injury in mice.

We have recently demonstrated that Jumonji domain-containing protein D3 (JMJD3), a histone demethylase of histone H3 on lysine 27 (H3K27me3), is protective against renal fibrosis, but its role in acute kidney injury (AKI) remains unexplored. Here, we report that JMJD3 activity is required for renal protection and regeneration in murine models of AKI induced by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) and folic acid (FA). Injury to the kidney upregulated JMJD3 expression and induced expression of H3K27me3, which was coincident with renal dysfunction, renal tubular cell injury/apoptosis, and proliferation. Blocking JMJD3 activity by GSKJ4 led to worsening renal dysfunction and pathological changes by aggravating tubular epithelial cell injury and apoptosis in both murine models of AKI. JMJD3 inhibition by GSKJ4 also reduced renal tubular cell proliferation and suppressed expression of cyclin E and phosphorylation of CDK2, but increased p21 expression in the injured kidney. Furthermore, inactivation of JMJD3 enhanced I/R- or FA-induced expression of TGF-ß1, vimentin, and Snail, phosphorylation of Smad3, STAT3, and NF-κB, and increased renal infiltration by F4/80 (+) macrophages. Finally, GSKJ4 treatment caused further downregulation of Klotho, BMP-7, Smad7, and E-cadherin, all of which are associated with renal protection and have anti-fibrotic effects. Therefore, these data provide strong evidence that JMJD3 activation contributes to renal tubular epithelial cell survival and regeneration after AKI.

Loss of renal tubular G9a benefits acute kidney injury by lowering focal lipid accumulation via CES1.

Surgery-induced renal ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury and nephrotoxic drugs like cisplatin can cause acute kidney injury (AKI), for which there is no effective therapy. Lipid accumulation is evident following AKI in renal tubules although the mechanisms and pathological effects are unclear. Here, we report that Ehmt2-encoded histone methyltransferase G9a is upregulated in patients and mouse kidneys after AKI. Renal tubular specific knockout of G9a (Ehmt2Ksp ) or pharmacological inhibition of G9a alleviates lipid accumulation associated with AKI. Mechanistically, G9a suppresses transcription of the lipolytic enzyme Ces1; moreover, G9a and farnesoid X receptor (FXR) competitively bind to the same promoter regions of Ces1. Ces1 is consistently observed to be downregulated in the kidney of AKI patients. Pharmacological inhibition of Ces1 increases lipid accumulation, exacerbates renal I/R-injury and eliminates the beneficial effects on AKI observed in Ehmt2Ksp mice. Furthermore, lipid-lowering atorvastatin and an FXR agonist alleviate AKI by activating Ces1 and reducing renal lipid accumulation. Together, our results reveal a G9a/FXR-Ces1 axis that affects the AKI outcome via regulating renal lipid accumulation.

Megalin-related mechanism of hemolysis-induced acute kidney injury and the therapeutic strategy.

Hemolysis-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) is attributed to heme-mediated proximal tubule epithelial cell (PTEC) injury and tubular cast formation due to intratubular protein condensation. Megalin is a multiligand endocytic receptor for proteins, peptides, and drugs in PTECs and mediates the uptake of free hemoglobin and the heme-scavenging protein α1-microglobulin. However, understanding of how megalin is involved in the development of hemolysis-induced AKI remains elusive. Here, we investigated the megalin-related pathogenesis of hemolysis-induced AKI and a therapeutic strategy using cilastatin, a megalin blocker. A phenylhydrazine-induced hemolysis model developed in kidney-specific mosaic megalin knockout (MegKO) mice confirmed megalin-dependent PTEC injury revealed by the co-expression of kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1). In the hemolysis model in kidney-specific conditional MegKO mice, the uptake of hemoglobin and α1-microglobulin as well as KIM-1 expression in PTECs was suppressed, but tubular cast formation was augmented, likely due to the nonselective inhibition of protein reabsorption in PTECs. Quartz crystal microbalance analysis revealed that cilastatin suppressed the binding of megalin with hemoglobin and α1-microglobulin. Cilastatin also inhibited the specific uptake of fluorescent hemoglobin by megalin-expressing rat yolk sac tumor-derived L2 cells. In a mouse model of hemolysis-induced AKI, repeated cilastatin administration suppressed PTEC injury by inhibiting the uptake of hemoglobin and α1-microglobulin and also prevented cast formation. Hemopexin, another heme-scavenging protein, was also found to be a novel ligand of megalin, and its binding to megalin and uptake by PTECs in the hemolysis model were suppressed by cilastatin. Mass spectrometry-based semiquantitative analysis of urinary proteins in cilastatin-treated C57BL/6J mice indicated that cilastatin suppressed the reabsorption of a limited number of megalin ligands in PTECs, including α1-microglobulin and hemopexin. Collectively, cilastatin-mediated selective megalin blockade is an effective therapeutic strategy to prevent both heme-mediated PTEC injury and cast formation in hemolysis-induced AKI. © 2024 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

The novel potential therapeutic target PSMP/MSMP promotes acute kidney injury via CCR2.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a major worldwide health concern that currently lacks effective medical treatments. PSMP is a damage-induced chemotactic cytokine that acts as a ligand of CCR2 and has an unknown role in AKI. We have observed a significant increase in PSMP levels in the renal tissue, urine, and plasma of patients with AKI. PSMP deficiency improved kidney function and decreased tubular damage and inflammation in AKI mouse models induced by kidney ischemia-reperfusion injury, glycerol, and cisplatin. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis revealed that Ly6Chi or F4/80lo infiltrated macrophages (IMs) were a major group of proinflammatory macrophages with strong CCR2 expression in AKI. We observed that PSMP deficiency decreased CCR2+Ly6Chi or F4/80lo IMs and inhibited M1 polarization in the AKI mouse model. Moreover, overexpressed human PSMP in the mouse kidney could reverse the attenuation of kidney injury in a CCR2-dependent manner, and this effect could be achieved without CCL2 involvement. Extracellular PSMP played a crucial role, and treatment with a PSMP-neutralizing antibody significantly reduced kidney injury in vivo. Therefore, PSMP might be a therapeutic target for AKI, and its antibody is a promising therapeutic drug for the treatment of AKI.